Książkę tę dedykuję mojej wnuczce Julii

© Copyright by Anna W. Kierczak, 2016

© Copyright by Wydawnictwo Lekarskie PZWL, Warszawa 2016

Wszystkie prawa zastrzeżone.

Przedruk i reprodukcja w jakiejkolwiek postaci całości bądź części książki bez pisemnej zgody wydawcy są zabronione.

Recenzent: prof. dr hab. n. med. Maciej Szmitkowski

Wydawca: Jolanta Jedlińska

Redaktor merytoryczny: Zespół

Producent: Magdalena Preder

Projekt okładki i stron tytułowych: Lidia Michalak-Mirońska

Projekt okładek do serii: Magdalena Kaczmarczyk

eBook został przygotowany na podstawie wydania papierowego z 2016 r., (wyd. I)

Warszawa 2016

ISBN 978-83-200-5243-5

Wydawnictwo Lekarskie PZWL

02-460 Warszawa, ul. Gottlieba Daimlera 2

tel. 22 695 43 21

http://www.pzwl.pl

Księgarnia wysyłkowa:

tel. 42 680 44 88; infolinia: 801 33 33 88

e-mail: wysylkowa@pzwl.pl

Informacje w sprawie współpracy reklamowej: reklama@pwn.pl

Przedmowa

English for Laboratory Diagnosticians to książka skierowana do studentów i absolwentów wydziałów uniwersyteckich oraz studiów podyplomowych i pomaturalnych z kierunków diagnostyka laboratoryjna, medycyna laboratoryjna i analityka medyczna, którzy reprezentują znajomość języka angielskiego na poziomie średnio zaawansowanym albo zaawansowanym.

Wszystkie teksty zamieszczone w książce bazują na anglojęzycznej literaturze fachowej i dotyczą typowych tematów i problemów, z którymi styka się diagnosta laboratoryjny, tzn. badań krwi, moczu, kału i płynów ustrojowych oraz wykorzystania osiągnięć genetyki w badaniach laboratoryjnych. Osobne dwa rozdziały poświęcone są tematyce bezpieczeństwa w laboratorium oraz procedurom laboratoryjnym.

W tym miejscu warto zaznaczyć, że istnieją różnice pomiędzy realiami, w jakich porusza się polski diagnosta laboratoryjny, a tymi, w jakich pracuje diagnosta z obszarów anglojęzycznych, np. w Polsce pacjenta identyfikuje się głównie za pomocą numeru PESEL, a w innych krajach – po pełnym imieniu i nazwisku, dacie urodzenia czy numerze polisy ubezpieczeniowej. Innym przykładem jest pojawiający się w książce zawód/stanowisko pracy flebotomisty, którego nie ma w Polsce. Stosowne wyjaśnienia dotyczące takich różnic zamieściłam w przypisach. Ponadto polski diagnosta laboratoryjny może się zetknąć z różnicami pomiędzy normami wyników laboratoryjnych uznawanymi w Polsce a tymi, które przyjęte są w Wielkiej Brytanii lub USA.

Należy wszakże pamiętać, że pierwszorzędnym celem tej książki jest zaznajomienie czytelnika z autentycznym językiem specjalistycznym, który osadzony jest w konkretnej rzeczywistości danego kraju obszaru anglojęzycznego. Zakładam też, że większość osób korzystających z tego podręcznika będzie posługiwała się specjalistycznym językiem angielskim poza granicami Polski lub pozostawała w kontakcie z rodzimymi użytkownikami języka angielskiego.

W apendyksach zamieściłam wykaz angielskich nazw (wraz z wymową) szkła laboratoryjnego, aparatury laboratoryjnej oraz sprzętów podstawowego wyposażenia laboratorium; organów, układów i części ciała ludzkiego; pierwiastków chemicznych; podstawowych jednostek miar; znaków i symboli matematycznych oraz ułamków, zwykłych i dziesiętnych. Podałam także, jak należy wymawiać poszczególne litery alfabetu oraz jak literować wyrazy w języku angielskim.

Zamieszczone w książce teksty posłużyły jako podstawa różnorodnych ćwiczeń, mających na celu rozwijanie znajomości specjalistycznego języka angielskiego z zakresu diagnostyki laboratoryjnej. Każdy tekst może stanowić bazę do konstruowania nowych, oryginalnych zadań językowych, a zaproponowane przeze mnie ćwiczenia mogą być modyfikowane i uzupełniane przez nauczyciela języka zgodnie z indywidualnymi potrzebami uczących się.

Słownictwo specjalistyczne podane w książce opracowałam głównie w oparciu o pozycję Mosby’s Manual of Diagnostic and Laboratory Tests, Fifth Edition, wydaną przez Elsevier Mosby St. Louis, Missouri USA 2012, autorstwa Kathleen Deska Pagana i Timothy J. Pagana, a także na podstawie Mosby’s Textbook for Nursing Assistants, Eighth Edition, wydaną przez Elsevier Mosby St. Louis, Missouri USA 2014, której autorkami są Sheila A. Sorrentino i Leighann N. Remmert. Inne źródła pomocne w opracowywaniu tekstów i ćwiczeń wyszczególniłam w Bibliography oraz Internet Sources.

Chociaż opierałam się głównie na oryginalnych źródłach amerykańskich, to z uwagi na fakt, że większość potencjalnych użytkowników książki zapewne pozostaje lub będzie pozostawała w relacjach zawodowych z jednostkami medycznymi Wielkiej Brytanii, zastosowałam brytyjską pisownię języka angielskiego. Różnice pomiędzy pisownią brytyjską (Br.) i amerykańską (US) biorą się między innymi stąd, że Brytyjczycy zachowali oryginalną pisownię wyrazów obcego pochodzenia (np. nazwy medyczne i biologiczne z języka łacińskiego lub greki, wyrazy pochodzące z języka francuskiego itp.), natomiast Amerykanie dla uproszczenia ortografii zastosowali zabieg usunięcia niektórych liter z zapisu wyrazów. Dla przykładu, brytyjskie wyrazy, które w zapisie mają podwójne samogłoski ae albo oe, w amerykańskim angielskim mają pojedynczą samogłoskę e, np. Br. leukaemia – US leukemia; Br. oestrogen – US estrogen. Innym zabiegiem uproszczającym zastosowanym w amerykańskiej ortografii jest brak podwajania litery l przed końcówkami zaczynającymi się na samogłoskę (tj. -ed, -ing, -er) dodawanymi do czasowników zakończonych na -l poprzedzone samogłoską, np. Br. labelled – US labeled. Podobnych zabiegów jest więcej. Poniżej podaję przykłady różnic pomiędzy zasadami pisowni w brytyjskim i amerykańskim angielskim:

Br.

US

diarrhoea

diarrhea

paediatric

pediatric

oedema

edema

litre

liter

odour

odor

catalogue

catalog or catalogue

utylise or utylize

utylize

analyse

analyze

travelling

traveling

defence

defense

sulphur

sulfur

aluminium

aluminum

Zamieszczony na końcu książki klucz do ćwiczeń, a także spis skrótów i wyrażeń specjalistycznych (List of Specialist Words and Abbreviations) umożliwiają samodzielną pracę z tekstem oraz sprawdzanie poprawności wykonanych poleceń.

Dla zamieszczonych w spisie skrótów i wyrażeń specjalistycznych zastosowałam w nawiasach bardzo uproszczoną wymowę słów angielskich. Dla wyrazów, które mogą być w sposób różny wymawiane przez rodowitych użytkowników języka, podałam ich istotnie różne wymowy.

Należy zwrócić uwagę, aby w przypadku wymowy nie czytać dwuznaku „rz” jak polskie [ż], ale wymawiać głoski [r] i [z] osobno, tak jak w polskim słowie „zmarzlina”, np. orders [order-z]. Podobnie w zestawieniach „zi” i ,,si” trzeba czytać każdą głoskę osobno [z] + [i] oraz [s] + [i], tak jak w polskich słowach „zintegrować” czy „silikon”, np. disease ['dyz-iis], theses [fiis-iiz]. Samogłoski, które należy wymawiać jako długie, zostały zapisane podwójnie. Dźwięki [r] i [j] umieszczone w nawiasie okrągłym, tzn. [(r)] i [(j)], można, wymawiając dane słowo, opuścić.

Akcenty podałam tylko tam, gdzie nie pokrywają się one z akcentem typowym dla języka polskiego lub w miejscach, gdzie mogą być pomocne w prawidłowym wymówieniu słowa.

Pragnę serdecznie podziękować wszystkim, którzy przyczynili się do powstania tej książki, a zwłaszcza profesorowi Maciejowi Szmitkowskiemu, Uniwersytet Medyczny w Białymstoku, a także Samuelowi Barsh, B.Sc. i Marcinowi Kierczakowi, Ph.D., Uppsala University, Sweden, oraz Zespołowi Redakcyjnemu Wydawnictwa Lekarskiego PZWL, szczególnie zaś redaktor Jolancie Jedlińskiej oraz Markowi Darewskiemu, którym jestem wdzięczna za cenne rady i uwagi.

Anna W. Kierczak

Explanatory Signs and Abbreviations

ang.

– angielski

Br.

– brytyjski angielski

dosł.

– dosłownie

dziec.

– mowa dziecinna

e.g. (łac. exempli gratia = ang. for example)

– na przykład

Eng. (ang. English)

– angielski

euf.

– eufemizm

form.

– formalnie

i.e. (łac. id est = ang. that is)

– to znaczy, to jest

Lat. (ang. Latin)

– łacina, łaciński

łac.

– łacina, łaciński

med.

– medyczny

p. (ang. page)

– strona

pl. (łac. pluralis)

– liczba mnoga

pot.

– potoczny

pp. (ang. pages)

– strony

s.

– strona

sb. (ang. somebody)

– ktoś

sing. (łac. singularis)

– liczba pojedyncza

sl.

– slang

ss.

– strony

sth. (ang. something)

– coś

US

– amerykański angielski

KEY

Unit 1: Guidelines on Laboratory Safety

Task 3

a) quality assurance

b) safe working environment

c) recognize safety hazards

d) people with contact lenses

e) centrifuges should not be operated without covers

f) wash your hands with soap and water

Task 4

Noun

Verb

safety

save

refrigerator

refrigerate

discard

discard

autoclave

autoclave

handle

handle

contamination

contaminate

disposal

dispose

Task 5

1e, 2a, 3f, 4d, 5h, 6c, 7i, 8j, 9g, 10b

Task 6

Possible answers

1. Ignorance, routine and carelessness of the personnel are the most common causes of laboratory accidents.

2. Laboratory safety depends on the personnel.

a) Bloodborne pathogen: see Section 2

b) Airborne pathogen: see Section 2

Task 7

Waterborne means carried or transmitted by water.

Bloodborne means transmitted by blood.

Task 8

1) barium sulphate, 2) copper sulphate, 3) silver sulphide, 4) cuprous sulphite, 5) silver nitrate, 6) sulphuric acid, 7) sulphurous acid.

Task 9

A: a) light-hearted, b) middle-aged, c) wax-coated, d) silver-plated, e) absent-minded, f) well-educated, g) short-sleeved, h) open-toed, i) sugar-coated, j) hand-written, k) patient-related; l) colour-coded; m) alcohol-based

B: a) far-reaching, b) energy-consuming, c) time-consuming, d) energy-giving, e) breastfeeding*, f) hardworking*, g) handwashing*

Task 10

1e, 2b, 3c, 4g, 5f, 6a, 7d

Task 11

1g, 2h, 3a, 4f, 5d, 6b, 7i, 8c, 9j, 10e

Task 12

1. No, he isn’t. He’s just starting his first full time job as a microbiology laboratory assistant in X-Y Laboratories. But when he was a student he used to help professor Judy Brown in her bacteriological lab at the university.

2. X-Y Laboratories are very modern and safe. They are fitted with special filters, safety cabinets, and negatively pressurized rooms to prevent any accidental release of pathogens from the laboratory.

3. Yes. They have a canteen and a lunchroom at the back.

4. They are going to have their coffee in a little coffee shop round the corner.

Task 13

Possible translations:

1. All clinical specimens should be considered potentially infectious and handled in the appropriate manner.

2. Place all contaminated material in a stainless steel container.

3. Place all contaminated aprons, gowns, and other linen in a water-soluble plastic bag.

4. Send all linen to a central laundry for wash.

5. Animal specimens should be transported to the incinerator for incineration.

6. When plastic bags are full, secure them tightly and label.

7. You should perform precautionary measures with blood specimens/samples.

Task 14

Biologic safety rules

3, 4, 11, 16

Electric safety rules

7, 13, 17

Chemical safety rules

1, 4, 9, 12

Fire safety rules

5, 10, 15, 18

Radiation safety rules

2, 4, 6, 8, 14

Unit 2: Test Preparation and Performance

Task 2

caused – made, (to) release – issue, handle – deal with, recommends – advises, considered – recognized, apply – relate, contain – have, require – demand, avoid – evade, advised – recommended

Task 3

Hand Hygiene

2

Respiratory Hygiene (Cough Etiquette)

6

Personal Safety and Personal Protective Equipment

1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10

Needle and Sharps Injury Prevention

9

Cleaning and Disinfection

5

Waste Disposal

11, 12, 13

Specimen Requirements

14

Task 4

A: a – hygiene, b – rub, c – handwashing, d – rub, e – hands, f – hands, g – body, h – diarrhoea, i – soap, j – stations, k – access;

B: suggested heading: Hand Hygiene

Task 5

A: 1 – dispense, 2 – apply, 3 – rub; B: 1 – wet, 2 – apply, 3 – rub, 4 – rinse, 5 – use

Task 6

A7, B2, C5, D6, E1, F3, G4

Task 7

Donning a gown: 1G, 3D, 5B, 6J, 7H, 9A

Removing a gown: 1F, 3I, 4C, 7E

Task 8

1d, 2c, 3a, 4b

Task 9

Possible translation

1. The outside of gloves is contaminated.

2. Gloves are easier to put on when your hands are dry.

3. Do not tear gloves when putting them on.

4. Practice hand hygiene.

5. Unfasten gown ties.

6. Roll up your shirt sleeves.

7. Turn the gown inside out.

8. Do not touch the outside of the gown.

9. Keep hands away from face.

10. Limit surfaces touched.

11. Change gloves when contaminated or torn.

Task 10

issued – published, track – follow, converted – transformed, reimbursed – refunded, accommodate – adopt, conform – correspond

Task 12

a) Morbidity – a diseased state, disability, or poor health; the incidence of disease, the rate of sickness.

b) Mortality – the state or condition of being subject to death; the relative frequency of deaths in a specific population.

c) Survival – the act or fact of continuing to live or exist, especially under adverse or unusual circumstances.

Task 13

a – WHO, b – managers, c – professionals, d – ICD-10-CM, e – retrieval, f – statistics

Task 14

A. Possible questions:

1. How many characters are there in ICD-10-CM codes?

2. What is the structure of ICD-10-CM codes?

3. What do the characters categorize?

B.

A – Numeric character; B – A combination of numeric and alpha characters; C – Cause, location, severity; D – Extension (Initial, subsequent encounter or sequela)

Task 15

a) medical community

b) analytes

c) established scientific principles

d) laboratory diagnostic testing

e) labor-intensive

f) [Some methods] require varying degrees of expertise

g) Laboratorians follow step-by-step test procedures

Task 17

A: a – accurate, b – precise, c – sensitivity, d – specificity

B: a) reakcje fałszywie pozytywne/dodatnie; b) metoda jest dokładna; c) metoda jest precyzyjna; d) wrażliwość/odporność metody; e) specyficzność metody

Task 18

Noun

Adjective

accuracy

accurate

sensitivity

sensitive

linearity

linear

precision

precise

specificity

specific

trueness

true

repeatability

repeatable

selectivity

selective

reproducibility

reproducible

ruggedness

rugged

robustness

robust

Task 19

Keyword: LABORATORY

1. ELISA; 2. precipitation; 3. Western blot; 4. fluorescence; 5. electrophoresis; 6. agglutination; 7. complement fixation; 8. immunoassays; 9. PCR; 10. enzyme

Task 21

1c, 2f, 3a, 4e, 5b, 6d

Task 22

a – familiar, b – nonsensical, c – identical, d – mismatching, e – uncommon, f – routinely, g – up-to-date

Task 23

A. Use at least three approved identifiers for each patient.

B. Correct patient identification is vital for patient safety and the maintenance of patient confidentiality.

C. Don’t assume you have the correct patient record when treating familiar patients.

Task 25

1. However, it should be kept in mind that ...

2. [Medications or foods] need to be discontinued

3. [Medications or foods] may interfere with testing results

4. fasting requirements

Task 26

Possible answer:

Providing information – giving (someone) information without instructing or training

Educating – giving (someone) information about something and instructing or training (someone) to do something

Task 27

1 – discontinue, 2 – improperly, 3 – abnormal, 4 – unconscious, 5 – unchanged, 6 – disabilities, 7 – imprope, 8 – preanalytic

Task 28

A. Possible questions:

1. What are lab tests?

2. Why do doctors use lab tests?

3. Why do tests use ranges?

4. What factors affect the results of lab test?

Task 29

a – age, b – gender, c – race, d – pregnancy, e – food ingestion, f – posture

Task 31

Possible explanations

1. challenge – the situation of being faced with something that needs great mental or physical effort in order to be done successfully and therefore tests a person’s ability

2. integrity – wholeness; state, quality, or condition of being

3. guideline – information intended to advise people on how something should be done or what something should be.

4. appropriate – suitable, or right for a particular situation or person

5. to obtain – to get something

Task 33

Possible translations:

1. Specimen containers must be correctly labelled.

2. If the patient’s last or first name is missing, the specimen will be considered unlabelled.

3. Laboratory procedures will not be performed on unacceptable specimens.

4. It is not acceptable to label only the lid.

5. All labels must be examined to determine if all necessary information is present and correct.

Task 34

1: a – adverse, b – proper; 2: a – such, b – certain, c – undue, d – precious

Task 36

a – rejecting, b – reasons, c – transport, d – sample, e – tube, f – haemolysed, g – insufficient, h – filling, i – refrigerated, j – mail, k – courier

Task 37

1b, 2c, 3a, 4b, 5c

Task 38

Possible answers:

Fixative – a substance that “fixes” a specimen by stabilizing (cross-linking) the proteins within its tissues such that long afterwards, the tissues will still retain a semblance of their appearance in life. Additionally, fixing usually raises the refractive index of the tissue making it more susceptible to staining. By definition, then, a fixative is a toxic chemical with a strongly adverse effect on tissue, in a sense chemically “freezing” the tissues permanently in place. Historically, the most common fixative for biological specimens has been formalin.

Preservative – a substance added to a specimen in which it can be stored and maintained without further degradation. The primary role of the preservative is to provide an environment in which bacterial and other infestations and contaminations are unlikely, thus maintaining the specimens over long periods of time.

The most common preservative is ethyl alcohol (ethanol).

Task 40

The Privacy Rule standards mentioned in Section 8: 1, 2, 4

Task 41

A: 1c, 2a, 3b

B: a) A negative test result means that the substance or condition being tested for was not found. Negative results can also mean that the substance being tested for was present in a normal amount.

b) A false negative test result is one that does not detect what is being tested for even though it is present. A false-negative test result may suggest that a person does not have a disease or condition being tested for when he or she does have it. For example, a false-negative pregnancy test result would be one that does not detect the substance that confirms pregnancy, when the woman really is pregnant.

Unit 3: Blood Studies

Task 2

a) studies are performed

b) to screen for disease

c) to rule out a clinical problem

d) a multitude of body processes and disorders

e) OTCs or over-the counter drugs

f) alcohol intake

Task 3

Possible definitions:

a) Hormones are body’s chemical messengers. They are secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream. The major endocrine glands are the pituitary, pineal, thymus, thyroid, adrenal glands, and pancreas. In addition, men produce hormones in their testes and women produce them in their ovaries.

Hormones travel in the bloodstream to tissues or organs. They affect many different processes, including growth and development, metabolism, sexual function, reproduction, and mood.

b) Lipids are a diverse group of naturally occurring fat-soluble biological molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, trigliceridescholesterol, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signalling and acting as structural components of cell membranes.

c) Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts. They accelerate, or catalyse, chemical reactions of other substances without themselves being destroyed or altered upon completion of the reactions. Wherever one substance needs to be transformed into another, nature uses enzymes to speed up the process. They speed up all vital biological processes.

Task 4

1b, 2d, 3c, 4a

Task 6

1b, 2f, 3d, 4c, 5e, 6a

Task 7

a) tissue, b) hip, c) stem, d) oxygen, e) infections, f) blood, g) disease, h) leukaemia, i) anaemia, j) symptoms, k) treatment, l) medicines

Task 8

A – electrolytes, B – immunoglobulins, C – albumin, D – clotting factors

Task 9

1 – in, 2 – to, 3 – on, 4 – for, 5 – in, 6 – for, 7 – from, 8 – in, 9 – up

Task 10

Blood/plasma donor is a person who gives or donates blood or plasma so that it can be given to someone who needs it.

Blood/plasma recipient is a person who receives blood or plasma.

Task 11

a) key, b) practice, c) donation, d) set, e) machine, f) combination, g) units, h) components, i) saline

Task 13

a) similar, b) both, c) certain, d) other, e) present, f) only

Task 14

Possible translation:

1. Albumin plays a major role in maintaining fluid balance in our body.

2. Clotting factors help control bleeding and work together with platelets to ensure the blood clots effectively.

3. Immunoglobulins are antibodies that the body produces to fight a variety of infections.

4. Serum is the part of the blood plasma that remains once the clotting factors like fibrin have been removed.

5. The proteins and antibodies in plasma are also used to create therapies for rare chronic conditions, such as autoimmune disorders and haemophilia.

Task 16

a) some are broken down to the waste product – bilirubin

b) as with RBC count, normal Hgb values vary according to gender and age

c) as the cells wear out

d) the values tend to decrease with age

e) in humans

f) women tend to have lower Hgb and RBCs values

e) a mature red blood cell appears as a flexible and oval biconcave disk

Task 17

Possible heading: Haemoglobin Levels for Children

Order of the sentences: c,e,b,a,d

Children need optimal oxygenation for normal growth and development. According to the World Health Organization, a normal haemoglobin level for children age 6 months to 4 years is at or above 11 g/dL. A normal levels for children ages 5 to 12 years is at or above 11.5 g/dL. A normal level for adolescents ages 12 to 15 is at or above 12.0 g/dL. Any haemoglobin values below these cut-points can indicate anaemia, a disorder characterized by a low red blood cell count, as well as low haemoglobin and haematocrit.

Task 18

A: a) 1 to 28 days; b) up to 12 months; c) from 1 up to 10 years; d) 10 to 19 years

B: Baby – a newborn or a very young child who cannot yet talk or walk; inf. the youngest member of a family or other group; spoken used for talking to someone you love, especially to someone you are in a romantic relationship with or to your child, e.g.

What’s the matter, baby?; a very young animal, e.g. a baby seal.

Neonate – a newborn; a baby in its first 28 days.

Kid – inf. a young person; a child (a daughter or a son).

Toddler – a young child (usually one between the ages of one and two and a half) who is just learning to walk; one who toddles.

Teenager – a person in his or her teens (one who is older than twelve and younger than twenty years of age).

Infant – a child during the earliest period of its life (from birth to 12 months), especially before he or she can walk; it includes the newborn or neonatal period; a baby.

Task 19

Possible answers:

1. Ms Smith’s doctor does not collect samples in his office and she cannot be tested there.

2. Ms Smith cannot order tests herself. Due to state regulatory requirements, she needs a completed test requisition or order form her doctor.

3. No, appointments are not required at a Blue Cross Laboratory location. However, she can make an online appointment. She may access Blue Cross Laboratories online scheduler and choose date and time that is convenient for her. She also has the option of downloading her appointment scheduling app to her Smartphone.

4. Ms Smith may need this blood test as a part of routine blood testing. She may also need her haematocrit checked before having surgery. Ms Smith, was suggested to ask her doctor why he ordered her a haematocrit test.

5. For her tests, Ms Smith needs to bring: a completed test requisition or order form from her doctor and a copy of her medical insurance card. If she is a veteran, she should show her Veterans’ Affairs card.

6. Rachel Goodman is a phlebotomist and can answer all the questions Ms Smith may have about blood tests.

7. She doesn’t need to prepare for this test. But she should inform her doctor about all medicines, herbs, vitamins, and supplements she is taking.

8. Ms Smith has very difficult veins and she is afraid that a collector can’t get the sample.

9. Taking a blood sample is a simple and safe procedure, however, as with all medical procedures, there are risks. Some people may experience dizziness during or after a blood test; this is very common in people who have a fear of needles and injections. In some rare cases, the site where the needle was passed into the vein may become infected and the wound may become red and swollen. Very rarely, the wound may bleed excessively.

10. Normal haematocrit values are different for men, women, and children. Normal values for women are 36 to 48 percent. However, there are many things that may affect lab test results, for example, the method each lab uses to do the test. Also, living at a high altitude may cause haematocrit level to be higher than normal. Being pregnant or being older than 60 can cause haematocrit level to be lower than normal.

If a person takes medicines, they can also affect HCT results.

Task 20

1 – in, to; 2 – for; 3 – of; 4 – from, into; 5 – against; 6 – for

Task 21

1b, 2d, 3e, 4a, 5c

Task 22

Possible interpretation/explanation:

White blood cells or WBCs are called leukocytes. There are five types of leukocytes which can be divided into two groups, namely granular white blood cells (also called granulocytes), and non-granular white blood cells (also called nongranulocytes). Neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils are granulocytes, whereas lymphocytes and monocytes are nongranulocytes. There are as many as three separate types of lymphocytes which are named B cells, T cells and NK cells.

Neutrophils (also called PMNs, polymorphonuclear neutrophils, or “polys”) are the most abundant type of white blood cells. The normal percentages of the different leukocytes are: neutrophils-55–70 percent, lymphocytes 20–40 percent, monocytes 2–8 percent, eosinophils 1–4 percent, and basophils 0.5–1.0 percent.

Task 23

1b, 2e, 3a, 4c, 5d

Task 24

1c, 2a, 3g, 4e, 5b

d – B-cells; f – T-cells; h – NK cells

Task 25

Comparison chart

RBCs

WBCs

Physical features (e.g. shape, presence of a nucleus, etc.)

RBCs are oval bi-concave discs, and have no nucleus.

WBCs are irregular in shape, but have a nucleus and an outer buffer coat.

Life span

They live for 3 or 4 months.

Mature white blood cells typically live for a few hours to 3-4 days. However, some white cells can live for a few weeks. Life span of WBCs varies according to their type.

Types

There is only one type of RBCs found in the blood.

There are various types of WBCs with distinct functions in the blood: granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) and nongranulocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes).

Total count

The number of RBCs is about 4.2 to 6.2 million cells/mm3. Normal RBCs values vary according to gender and age.

There are about 5,000 to 10,000 WBCs in a cubic millimetre of blood.

Functions

WBCs carry oxygen from the lungs to the body‘s tissues and returns carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.

Leukocytes protect the body against infection, they destroy foreign substances such as bacteria and viruses, and clear bloodstream of debris.

Components

Each RBC contains about 270 million haemoglobin molecules.

WBCs produce antibodies and antitoxins.

Production

Produced in the red bone marrow.

The bone marrow produces 60–70 percent of the white cells (i.e. the granulocytes). The lymphatic tissues, particularly the thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes, produce lymphocytes (comprising 20–30 percent of the white cells). The reticuloendothelial tissues of the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and other organs produce monocytes (4–8 percent of the white cells).

Significance of irregularity in count

A very low RBC count will result in anaemia.

Leukocyte production increases in response to infection. An increased WBC count is specific for various illnesses such as bacterial infection, inflammation, leukaemia, trauma, and stress.

Task 27

a) disk-shaped; b) platelike; c) kidney-shaped; d) spindle-shaped; e) sacklike; f) bricklike; g) dome-shaped

Task 28

Possible translation:

1. Platelets are actually not true cells but merely fragments of cells.

2. A platelet is a disc-shaped formed element of blood that is involved in blood clotting.

3. Platelets aggregate during normal blood clotting.

4. The principal function of platelets is to prevent bleeding.

5. As megakaryocytes develop into giant cells, they undergo a process of fragmentation that results in the release of platelets.

6. Fibrin is an insoluble protein involved in blood clotting.

Task 29

Possible answers:

a) Coagulation is a complex process by which the blood forms clots to block and then heal a lesion/wound/cut and stop the bleeding. Coagulation involves cellular (platelet) and protein (coagulation factor) components.

b) Haemostasis is the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by repair.

c) Haemorrhage is the medical term for excessive bleeding.

d) Thrombosis is the formation of potentially deadly blood clots in the artery (arterial thrombosis) or vein (venous thrombosis).

Task 31

a) depending on

b) which is missing from serum

c) blood obtained by skin puncture

d) skin puncture or capillary blood

e) [blood] differs in some important aspects

Task 32

a) intracellular fluid (ICF); b) interstitial fluid (IF); c) extracellular fluid (ECE)

Task 33

A. a – large scars; b – a sample; c – a hand or upper limb; d – a lymphatic obstruction (the build-up of fluid in soft body tissues when the lymph system is damaged or blocked); e – a collection of blood outside a blood vessel; f – a type of intermittent intravenous device for the administration of heparin. It does not require a continuous flow of fluids; the intravenous fluid flow can be disconnected and the heparin lock filled with a heparin solution that maintains patency of the needle; g – swollen limbs (swelling is caused by fluid retention)

B. 3. Areas to Avoid When Choosing a Site for Blood Draw

Task 34

Infection Control Procedures

Do

Do Not

DO carry out hand hygiene (use soap and water or alcohol rub). Do wash hands carefully (including wrists and spaces between the fingers) for at least 30 seconds.

DO NOT forget to clean your hands.

DO use one pair of non-sterile gloves per procedure or patient.

DO NOT use the same pair of gloves for more than one patient. DO NOT wash gloves for reuse.

DO use a single-use device for blood sampling and drawing.

DO NOT use a syringe, needle or lancet for more than one patient.

DO disinfect the skin at the venipuncture site.

DO NOT touch the puncture site after disinfecting it.

DO discard the used device (a needle and syringe is a single unit) immediately into a robust sharps container.

DO NOT leave an unprotected needle lying outside the sharps container.

If recapping of a needle is unavoidable, DO use the one-hand scoop technique.

DO NOT recap a needle using both hands.

DO seal the sharps container with a tamper-proof lid.

DO NOT overfill or decant a sharps container.

DO place laboratory sample tubes in a sturdy rack before injecting into the rubber stopper.

DO NOT inject into a laboratory tube while holding it with the other hand.

DO immediately report any incident or accident linked to a needle or sharp injury, and seek assistance; start PEP as soon as possible, following protocols. 

DO NOT delay PEP after exposure to potentially contaminated material (beyond 72 hours, PEP is NOT effective).

Task 35

1 – kidney dish, 2 – tourniquet, 3 – scissors, 4 – forceps, 5 – vacutainer and needle, 6 – specimen tubes, 7 – protective sterile gloves, 8 – butterfly needle (winged infusion set, intravenous cannula), 9 – skin preparation antiseptic, 10 – band-aid (sticking plaster, plaster, or adhesive bandage), 11 – syringe, 12 – plunger, 13 – calibrated barrel, 14 – needle adapter, 15 – adhesive tape, 16 – cotton wool, 17 – gauze (gauze dressing, gauze pack), 18 – lancet (flat type), 19 – needle, 20 – hub, 21 – cannula (shaft), 22 – bevel, 23 – protective cover

Task 37

a – cephalic vein, b – basilic vein, c – median cubital vein, d – brachial artery, e – ulnar artery, f – radial artery, g – deep palmar arch

Task 38

A: blood culture tubes, nonadditive tubes, coagulation tubes, heparin tubes, EDTA-K3 tubes, oxalate-fluoride tubes.

B. A sharps container is a container that is filled with used medical needles (and other sharp medical instruments, such as an IV catheter). They fit into two main types: single use which are disposed of with the waste inside, reusable which are robotically emptied and sterilized before being returned for re-use. Immediate disposal of used needles into a sharps container is standard procedure.

Task 39

a – skin preparation antiseptic; b – tourniquet; c – specimen tube; d – vacutainer (or vacuette); e – gauze sponge; f – band-aid; g – sharps disposal container

Task 40

Possible answer.

A.

Patient preparation

1. Greet the patient.

2. Introduce yourself to the patient.

3. Explain that you will be collecting a blood specimen for test ordered by his/her physician. (You may not perform blood collection against the patient’s or guardian’s consent).

4. Identify the patient, i.e. ask the patient to state and spell his/her name and give you his/her birth date. Then, check these against the requisition (paper or electronic).

5. Verify patient’s dietary restrictions (e.g. fasting).

6. Verify if patient has a latex allergy.

7. Assemble all necessary supplies and put on gloves and other appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).

8. Verify paperwork and the selection of tubes.

9. Position the patient in a chair (or sitting/lying on a bed) so that the vein is readily accessible. If the patient is in a chair, the chair must have armrest in order to support the patients arm during the procedure. Blood should never be drawn from a patient who is in a standing position.

Performing the venipuncture

10. Select the appropriate vein for venipuncture.

11. Apply the tourniquet 3–4 inches above the collection site. Never leave the tourniquet on for over 1 minute. If a tourniquet is used for preliminary vein selection, release it and reapply after two minutes.

12. Clean the puncture site by making a smooth circular pass over the site with the 70% alcohol pad, moving in an outward spiral from the zone of penetration. 

13. Allow the skin to dry before proceeding. Do not touch the puncture site after cleaning.

14. Ask the patient to make a fist.

15. Perform the venipuncture by entering the skin with the needle bevel up and the needle at approximately a 15-degree angle to the skin. Avoid excess probing.

16. Place a gauze pad over the puncture site and remove the needle. Immediately apply slight pressure. 

17. Ask the patient to apply pressure for at least 2 minutes. 

18. When bleeding stops, apply a fresh bandage, gauze or tape.

B.

Patient preparation

1. Check the requisition form for requested tests, other patient information and any special draw requirements. Gather the tubes and supplies that you will need for the draw.

2. Reassure the patient and explain him/her the procedure.

3. The patient should not have any foreign objects in their mouth (food, liquid, chewing gum, thermometer, etc.) during this procedure.

4. Verify orders and the selection of tubes.

5. Apply gloves and other appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE). Federal Government regulations require that gloves be worn when performing any venipuncture procedure.

Performing the venipuncture:

6. Reassure the patient that the minimum amount of blood required for testing will be drawn.

7. Inspect the needle to make sure that the seal is intact.

8. Check the tip of the needle for any hooks, burrs or small particles that could obstruct blood flow, injure the patient or get into the patient’s blood stream.

9. Make sure that the tubes are not expired or cracked.

10. Perform the venipuncture using the correct order of draw.

11. Release the tourniquet when the blood begins to flow.

12. Properly dispose of hub with needle attached into a sharps container. Label all tubes with patient labels, initials, date and time.

Task 41

1c, 2d, 3b, 4a, 5e

Task 42

Possible translations:

1. Human blood is red, ranging from bright red when oxygenated to dark red when not.

2. Veins and arteries vary in size from one patient to another and from one side of the body to the other.

3. Obtaining a blood sample from some people may be more difficult compared to others.

4. When the needle is inserted to draw blood, some people feel moderate pain, while others feel only a prick or stinging sensation.

5. Your doctor may ask you to refrain from taking any medicines shortly before the test or require an overnight fast to assure accuracy of your blood test results.

6. Tubes with additives must be thoroughly mixed.

7. Erroneous test results may be obtained when the blood is not thoroughly mixed with the additive.

8. Blood should NEVER be poured from one collection tube to another since the tubes can have different additives or coatings.

9. The gauge number indicates the bore size: the larger the gauge number, the smaller the needle bore.

Task 44

a – wrist, b – elbow, c – groin, d – wrist, e – hand, f – forearm, g – antiseptic, h – needle, i – needle, j – site, k – bleeding

Task 45

a) Why is the procedure of radial artery puncture performed?

b) Where is the needle inserted?

c) How does the needle fill?

d) What is pre-filled with heparin?

e) Why is the syringe pre-filled with heparin?

f) What is heparin?

g) What does heparin prevent?

Task 46

Singular form of the noun

Plural form of the noun

nucleus

nuclei

datum

data

specimen

specimens

prognosis

prognoses

bacterium

bacteria

virus

viruses

fungus

fungi

organelle

organelles

yeast

yeasts

tissue

tissues

mitochondrion

mitochondria

diagnosis

diagnoses

index

indices

pseudopodium

pseudopodia

Task 47

1. VENIPUNCTURE; 2. RADIAL; 3. PULMONARY; 4. PUNCTURE; 5. FEMORAL; 6. LUNGS; 7. GROIN; 8. PULSE; 9. HAND; 10. FOREARM; 11. ELBOW; 12. WRIST; 13. ULNAR

Keyword: TRYPANOPHOBIA

Trypanophobia is the extreme fear of hypodermic needles or injections in medical procedures. While it is normal for anyone to have a certain level of discomfort or fear related to these procedures, the trypanophobic fears them so much that he/she avoids medical treatment altogether. Sometimes people with this disorder faint when exposed to needles or injection, even when the procedure does not involve them.

The fear of needles can be either a learned or an inherited condition. A fairly small number of people inherit a fear of needles; most people acquire needle phobia around age four to six.

Task 48

A.

a – changed slightly, especially in order to make sth. more suitable for a particular purpose; adapted

b – parallel; situated or placed side by side; additional

c – make the person’s hand turn pale (or become white)

d – by removing all signs of something, either by destroying or covering it completely; here by blocking

e – becoming red; becoming suffused with a reddish color

B. Steps for performing the modified Allen test: c, b, a, g, d, f, e

C. a – pallor is produced by clenching fist; b – radial artery is occluded; c – ulnar artery is occluded; d – unclenched hand returns to baseline color due to ulnar artery and connecting arches; e – ulnar artery is released and patent; f – radial artery is occluded

Task 50

a) to obtain arterialized capillary blood; b) vein large enough to accept even a small gauge needle; c) in spite of the fact that …; d) in some circumstances; e) veins that are available; f) [veins] may need to be reserved for …; g) as a possible substitute for …; h) in adult patients; i) the most common way

Task 51

d, a, f, c, b, e

Task 52

a – disposable, b – non-latex, c – vinyl, d – isopropyl, e – cotton, f – premature, g – resistant, h – Band, i – micro, j – household, k – personal

Task 53

Step 1: c, h; Step 2: f, l, k, j; Step 3: m; Step 4: r; Step 5: u, w; Step 6: o, v; Step 7: s; Step 8: p, t; Step 9: g; Step 10: e; Step 11: i, n; Step 12: b; Step 13: d; Step 14: a

Task 55

1a, 2c, 3b, 4c, 5b

Task 56

Indication

Test

To determine electrolyte imbalance

Electrolyte test

To diagnose diabetes

Blood sugar test

To diagnose genetic conditions (e.g.: haemophilia, cystic fibrosis, sickle anaemia, etc.)

Genetic testing and screening

To diagnose/detect infection

CBC

To detect blood clotting problems

CBC, coagulation factor tests

To detect blood disorders

CBC

To detect or monitor significant inflammation (e.g. sepsis)

CRP test

To help minimize the risk of stroke, heart attack, and peripheral artery disease

Blood cholesterol

To detect under-/overactive thyroid

TFTs (routinely: TSH and FT4)

To determine the presence of antibodies related to certain infectious conditions (e.g. toxoplasmosis, rotavirus, HIV, Lyme disease, etc.)

ELISA tests

Indication

Test

To measures: PaO2, PaCO2, pH, HCO3, O2CT, O2Sat

ABG

To screen men for early detection of prostatic cancer

PSA

To detect chromosomal defects associated with disease or risk for developing disease

Karyotyping

Task 57

Possible answers:

a) Usually, differential count is performed as part of a CBC or if the results from a CBC are not within the normal range. Also, it is used to help evaluate patients with infection, neoplasm, allergy or immunosuppression.

b) Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) aids diagnosis in conditions associated with inflammation such as: arthritis, endocarditis, Crohn’s disease, temporal arthritis, or polymyalgia rheumatica.

c) Coagulation factor tests are performed: to check for bleeding disorders, such as haemophilia or von Willebrand disease; to determine whether someone has a coagulation problem; when someone is experiencing excessive bleeding or bruising or has a prolonged prothrombin time or partial prothrombin time; when someone is suspected of having an acquired condition that is causing bleeding, such as vitamin K deficiency or liver diseases.

d) Blood typing is used to determine the blood type of the patient before donating or receiving blood. It is also used to determine the blood type of expectant mothers to assess the risk of Rh incompatibility between mother and newborn.

e) Liver blood tests are performed: to detect an injury or an inflammation to the liver; to evaluate abdominal pain, or suspected liver disease; to diagnose certain liver conditions (e.g. hepatitis, cirrhosis, alcohol-related disease); to identify and monitor improvement or worsening of liver diseases.

f) Amylase test helps diagnose and monitor acute/chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic pseudocyst, and other disorders that may involve the pancreas. It is used to monitor treatment of cancers involving the pancreas and after the removal of gallstones; to monitor treatment for pancreatitis and other pancreatic diseases; and to check swelling and inflammation of the salivary glands.

g) Blood culture and sensitivity (blood C&S) test is used in order to find a bacterial infection that has spread into the blood (e.g. meningitis, osteomyelitis, pneumonia, a kidney infection, or sepsis) and to identify what type of bacteria is causing the infection; to find a fungal infection, such as yeast, in the blood; to check for endocarditis; to find the cause of an unexplained fever or shock or a person becoming extremely ill; and to give the best chance for effective treatment and survival when bacteraemia is suspected. The test is also used to determine the antibiotics that will be effective in treating the infection (sensitivity/ susceptibility testing).

Task 58

1d, 2l, 3k, 4a, 5i, 6j, 7g, 8b, 9h, 10c, 11f, 12e

Task 59

e, c, g, a, d, f, h, b

Suggested title: Timing of blood collection.

Task 60

Possible translation:

1. Do not eat or drink anything except normal amounts of plain water for 8–10 hours before the blood draw.

2. You may drink normal amounts of water, but no coffee, decaffeinated coffee, tea, or juice.

3. You should avoid alcoholic beverages for 48 hours if lipid testing is ordered.

4. Do not smoke, chew gum, or exercise the morning of the test.

5. Take your medications, unless your provider has instructed you otherwise.

Unit 4: Urine Studies

Task 2

a) overall health

b) urinalysis may be preferred for several reasons

c) provides a general overview of a person’s health

d) specimen obtained at a random moment of the day

e) [some products] are rapidly cleared by the kidneys

f) patients with diabetes

g) a set of screening tests

h) in spite of the fact

Task 3

1 – sample; 2 – in a way that does not cost much money; 3 – laboratory tests that help to identify people with increased risk for a condition or disease before they have symptoms or even realize they may be at risk so that preventive measures can be taken; 4 – precious, inestimable; 5 – conforming to or constituting an accepted standard, modal or pattern; standard; 6 – easily seen, plainly visible, evident

Task 4

Quality may be defined as ‘meeting certain requirements’; the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils an expectation or need that is stated, obligatory or generally implied.

Task 5

a4, b2, c1, d5, e3

Task 7

1 – into, in; 2 – in, around; 3 – within, from; 4 – at, through, out; 5 – in, with; 6 – out, into; 7 – in; 8 – through, into

Task 8

Language

Expression/verb

Formal language

to urinate, to void, to micturate, to pass water

Informal language

to go to the bathroom/toilet (= use the toilet), to pee, to tinkle, to wee-wee, or wee (Br.), to wiz/whizz (US.)

Slang

to have/take a leak

Vulgar slang

to piss

Task 9

Possible answer:

To secrete – to produce by means of secretion, e.g. some glands secrete hormones.

To excrete – to discharge wastes from the body, e.g. the kidneys excrete the waste products of metabolism.

Task 10

a – kidneys, b – ureters, c – sphincters, d – bladder, e – urethra, f – renal pelvis, g – ureter, h – capsule, i – medulla, j – cortex, k – calyx, l – glomerulus, m – proximal convoluted tubule, n – loop of Henle, o – Bowman’s capsule, p – distal convoluted tubule, r – collecting duct

Task 11

Singular form of the noun

Plural form of the noun

calyx

calyces

arteriole

arterioles

glomerulus

glomeruli

meatus

meatuses

specimen

specimens

medulla

medullas

pelvis

pelves, pelvises

analysis

analyses

Task 14

Possible explanations:

random – chosen, done, etc. without any regular pattern, or without somebody deciding in advance what is going to happen

prior – existing or happening before something else or before a particular time

for ease – for lack of difficulty

diurnal – occurring during the daytime; occurring or performed every day; daily;

normal – typical, usual, or ordinary; conforming to or constituting an accepted standard, model, or pattern; what you would expect

illegal – not legal, unlawful

in anticipation of testing – looking forward to the tests; expecting the tests

Task 16

later – immediately, subsequent – previous, negative – positive, inconvenient – convenient, rarely – frequently, last – first

Task 17

1. derblad – bladder

2. taincon – contain

3. tionleccol – collection

4. proiaurinte – proteinuria

5. ratenit – nitrate

6. niacsomin – …...insomniac

Task 19

a – glucose, b – preservative, c – electrolytes, d – urobilinogen, e – hormones

Task 21

Culture and sensitivity tests may be done on many different body fluids, such as urine, mucus, blood, pus, saliva, breast milk, spinal fluid, or discharge from the vagina or penis.

A culture test (or a culture) is a test to find germs (bacteria or fungi) that can cause an infection. For a culture, a sample of body fluid or tissue is added to a substance that promotes the growth of germs. If no germs grow, the culture is negative. If germs that can cause infection grow, the culture is positive. The type of germ may be identified using a microscope or chemical tests. Bacteria usually grow quickly in a culture (2 days), while other types of organisms, such as a fungi, can take longer.

Sensitivity (susceptibility) test checks what kind of medicine, such as an antibiotic, will work best to treat the illness or infection. The test helps find the right antibiotic to kill an infecting microorganism. This test determines the “sensitivity” of a colony of bacteria to an antibiotic. It also determines the ability of the drug to kill the bacteria. Testing for antibiotic sensitivity is often done by the Kirby-Bauer method. Small wafers containing antibiotics are placed onto a plate upon which bacteria are growing. If the bacteria are sensitive to the antibiotic, a clear ring (zone of inhibition) is seen around the wafer indicating poor growth.

Task 23

a) site, b) routine, c) urinate, d) guidelines, e) is recommended, f) in this manner

Task 24

1h, 2a, 3g, 4c, 5e, 6f, 7b, 8d, 9h

Task 25

1f, 2a, 3n, 4g, 5b, 6j, 7l, 8d, 9m, 10h, 11k, 12i, 13e, 14c

Task 27

requested – asked; discard – get rid of; noted – recorded; registered; collects – saves, gathers; including – comprising; refrigerated – kept cold (in the refrigerator); mixed – blended, stirred; going on – happening

Task 29

1c, 2a, 3d, 4b

Task 30

1d, 2c, 3e, 4a, 5b

Task 32

1e, 2g, 3j, 4n, 5c, 6i, 7l, 8b, 9m, 10d, 11h, 12f, 13a, 14k

Task 33

SPA is the “cleanest”, and the best test for working out if your child has a urine infection but because it involves using a needle, it may involve some pain. A doctor puts a needle through the skin of the lower stomach. The needle goes into the bladder and the doctor can get urine out. Germs from the skin can’t get into the urine.

Task 35

a) a cause of concern; b) shades of yellow; c) there are a few situations; d) damage to the urinary system; e) an array of tests; f) very pale; g) the depth of urine colour; h) a dilute urine; i) the clarity of the urine; j) a cloudy urine appearance

Task 36

Substances that cause cloudiness

Substances that are not considered unhealthy

Substances that indicate

a condition that requires attention

mucus, sperm, prostatic fluid, cells from the skin, normal urine crystals, contaminants such as body lotions and powders

red blood cells, white blood cells, bacteria

Task 37

1b, 2c, 3c, 4a, 5b

Task 39

a) produced, becomes, infected; b) voided, containing, defined, voided; c) contains, appearing, caused, transmitted, grow; d) centrifuged, concentrate, discarded, remaining, examined

Task 40

Possible translations:

1. RBCs can also be a contaminant due to an improper sample collection (blood from haemorrhoids or menstruation).

2. WBCs can also be a contaminant of urine, e.g. vaginal secretions.

3. Normally, a few RBCs are present in urine sediment.

4. Normally, the number of WBCs in urine sediment is low.

5. A urine culture should be performed if a UTI is suspected.

6. Trichomonads are parasites that may be found in the urine of women, rarely in men.

7. In women (and rarely in men), yeast can also be present in urine.

8. In healthy people, the urinary tract is sterile.

9. Under the microscope, you can see different types of casts: hyaline casts, granular casts, fatty casts, and waxy casts.

10. When there is an infection in the urinary tract, the urine may take on a foul-smelling odour as well as appear cloudy or bloody.

Task 41

H, G, A, D, E, B, C, F

Task 43

routine – in accord with established procedure; habitual; regular; ordinary

specific – distinctive, unique

standard – serving as or conforming to an established or accepted measurement or value

convenient – suited or favourable to one’s comfort, purpose, or needs

rapid – moving, acting, or occurring with great speed

accurate – errorless

qualitative – involving distinctions based on qualities; „qualitative analysis determines the chemical constituents of a substance or mixture”

quantitative – expressible as a quantity or relating to or susceptible of measurement; “quantitative analysis determines the amounts and proportions of the chemical constituents of a substance or mixture”

preliminary – prior to or preparing for the main matter, action or business; introductory or prefatory

definitive – accurate; authoritative; complete; beyond a doubt

Task 44

a1, b4, c5, d9, e8, f2, g6, h3, i7

Task 45

1d, 2f, 3a, 4b, 5c, 6e

Task 46

1. No, Ann isn’t an experienced laboratorian. It is her first full-time job.

2. She is to check if the urine samples were correctly labelled.

3. Ann isn’t quite sure what specimen labelling is required in the laboratory.

4. Every specimen brought to the laboratory must have a label on the container in which it is held. It is not acceptable to label only the lid, transport bag, or other container used to transport the specimen. The label must contain the following legible information: patient’s name, age and sex; patient’s medical record number or MRN with a check digit, patient’s location, ordering physician, test or tests requested, as well as the date and time of collection. Also, one of the collection methods should be circled, for example a ”24-hour specimen”. V stands for ”voided”, C is for “catheterized”, and CCMS for a “clean catch midstream”.

Unit 5: Stool Studies

Task 2

1 – inflammation, 2 – infection, 3 – diarrhoea, 4 – bleeding, 5 – malabsorption

Task 4

A. a – oesophagus, b – liver, c – gallbladder and bile duct, d – duodenum, e – appendix, f – stomach, g – pancreas, h – small intestine, i – large intestine, j – rectum, k – anus

B. a6, b4, c2, d1, e5, f3

Task 5

to trap sth./sb. – uwięzić, zatrzymać w pułapce, schwytać w potrzask coś/kogoś

to allow for sth. – zezwolić na coś/pozwalać na coś

from time to time – od czasu do czasu

to play an important role – odgrywać ważną rolę

to keep a check on sth. or sb. – kontrolować, dopilnowywać, sprawdzać coś/kogoś

disease-causing – wywołujący chorobę

to smell good – ładnie pachnieć

well-formed – dobrze uformowany

Task 6

A. Possible questions:

a) Who developed the Bristol Stool Chart?

b) When and where was the Bristol Stool Chart first developed?

c) What does the type of stool depend on?

d) What is the Bristol Stool Chart?

e) How many types of faeces are there according to the Bristol Stool Chart?

Task 7

a) indicate, b) come, c) suggest, d) produce, e) known, f) associated

Task 8

Language

Expression/verb

Formal language

defecate

Informal language

have a bm/BM, powder one‘s nose (esp. women), go (to the toilet/bathroom), poop (US) or poo (Br.),

Slang

make a caca (esp. Hispanics), do number two, doodoo (esp. children), drop a load, take a dump,

Vulgar slang

crap, shit

Task 10

a) ascaris; b) pinworms; c) tapeworm, 1 – unarmed tapeworm, 2 – armed tapeworm, 3 – fish tapeworm; d) hookworm; e) Giardia lamblia, 1 – trophozoite, 2 – cyst; f) Fasciola hepatica; g) Strongyloides stercoralis, 1 – adult worm, 2 – eggs

Task 11

A. Possible answers:

1. Mr Andrew Black suffers from diarrhoea, headache, nausea, vomiting and dizziness.

2. Mr Black had two hot-dogs for lunch. Fast food could cause his indigestion.

3. He was prescribed some indigestion pills and he has to stay on a bland diet. He has to take two indigestion pills three times a day. The pills should be drunk with water.

4. To make his diagnoses final, the doctor needs stool tests results.

B. D, K, C, I, F, A, J, H, B, G, E

C.

a) We’ll see you in an hour or so

b) We’re running a bit behind schedule

c) What do you need to see the doctor about?

d) There’s a slot at 2:30 p.m.

e) That’s suits me fine

Task 12

Possible translations:

1. Many medicines can change the results of a stool test.

2. He needs to collect several stool samples over 10 days because he has digestive disorders after traveling to Asia.

3. When a rectal swab is done, you may feel some pressure or discomfort as the swab is inserted into your rectum.

4. There is no pain while collecting a stool sample.

5. A bland diet can be used to treat ulcers, heartburn, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and gas.

6. pH stool test helps to evaluate carbohydrate and fat malabsorption.

7. Don’t refrigerate the stool for ova and parasites.

8. Stool for ova and parasites can be collected in formalin and polyvinyl alcohol.

Task 14

1. stool – faeces; 2. refrigerated – kept cool; 3. in a row – consecutively, successively; 4. pathogen – microscopic organism, often causing illness; 5. occult – hidden; 6. ova – eggs; 7. has more to do with – deals more with, is more connected with

Task 15

“Microscopic” and “macroscopic” are antonyms. The word “microscopic” describes something that is so small that it can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. The word “macroscopic” refers either to something that can be seen with the naked eye.

Task 16

Singular form of the noun

Plural form of the noun

appendix

appendixes (in anatomy), appendices (part of a book or document)

ovum

ova

parasite

parasites

bacillus

bacilli

mucus

uncountable noun

coccus

cocci

no singular form*

faeces

pus

uncountable noun

protozoan

protozoa

larva

larvae

1 This word can be used with plural verbs (“faeces have a strong smell”) or singular ones (“faeces has a strong smell”). Use with plural verbs is more common, especially in Britain, and is the only use recognized by some dictionaries, while others recognize both plural and singular use.

Task 17

1) a – down, b – at, c – within; 2) a – for, b – with; 3) a – with, b – of; 4) a – for, b – for, c – to; 5) a – by, b – by; 6) a – by; b – of; c – to; 7) a – upon, b – in; 8) a – to, b – to; 9) a – within, b – of

Task 43

routine – in accord with established procedure; habitual; regular; ordinary

specific – distinctive, unique

standard – serving as or conforming to an established or accepted measurement or value

convenient – suited or favourable to one’s comfort, purpose, or needs

rapid – moving, acting, or occurring with great speed

accurate – errorless

qualitative – involving distinctions based on qualities; “qualitative analysis determines the chemical constituents of a substance or mixture”

quantitative – expressible as a quantity or relating to or susceptible of measurement; “quantitative analysis determines the amounts and proportions of the chemical constituents of a substance or mixture”

preliminary – prior to or preparing for the main matter, action or business; introductory or prefatory

definitive – accurate; authoritative; complete; beyond a doubt

Unit 6: Body Fluid Analysis

Task 2

1) cyst, 2) cystic fibrosis, 3) discharge, 4) electrolytes, 5) enzymes, 6) fertility, 7) mucus, 8) semen, 9) sweat

Task 3

A. fluid; B. mucus; C amniotic, D. data

Task 5

a) fluid overload; b) venous engorgement; c) [testing of body fluids] is an important part of diagnosis and management for variety of diseases; d) accumulations of fluid; e) [effusions] can occur nearly anywhere; f) neoplastic disease

Task 6

1 – belly; 2 – heart; 3 – chest, lungs; 4 – knees, shoulders, hips; 5 – genital area; 6 – brain, cord

Task 7

T: 1, 4, 6

E: 2, 3, 5

Task 8

a – is called, b – consists, c – accumulates, d – forms, e – is caused, f – develops

Task 9

a – of, b – of, c – within, d – with, e – outside, f – outside, g – of, h – between, i – to, j – of, k – in, l – to, m – to, n – of

Task 10

a) heart, b) visceral pericardium, c) pericardial cavity, d) parietal pericardium, e) parietal peritoneum, f) peritoneal cavity, g) visceral peritoneum, h) lung, i) visceral pleura, j) pleural cavity, k) parietal pleura, l) liver, m) stomach, n) intestine

Task 12

1 – guidance, 2 – collection, 3 – drainage, 4 – suction, 5 – discharge, 6 – contamination, 7 – transportation, alteration

Task 13

1g, 2c, 3a, 4b, 5f, 6d, 7e

Task 14

Possible translation.

Przy użyciu/za pomocą technik aspiracyjnych aspirowana jest różna ilość płynu. Małe ilości płynu aspirowane są do strzykawki. Przy większej ilości [aspirowanego] płynu igła dołączona jest do plastikowej rurki. Drugi koniec rurki umieszczony jest w odbieralniku (zazwyczaj w pojemniku próżniowym).

Task 15

Possible translations:

1. The cells are then analyzed under a microscope.

2. In most cases, a needle is used to take out some fluid.

3. Genital tests are done by taking a swab or sample of fluid.

4. A doctor collects cervical mucus in a way similar to a Pap smear.

5. Place a small bandage over the needle site after aspiration is performed.

6. Label the specimen with the patient’s name, date, source of fluid, and diagnosis.

7. Send the specimen promptly to the laboratory.

8. Observe the puncture site for bleeding, continued drainage, or signs of infection if aspiration is performed.

9. Write any recent antibiotic therapy on the microbiology requisition slip.

10. Place the patient in a position designed to minimize further leakage of fluid from an aspiration site.

11. Monitor the patient and educate the patient about signs of potential complications.

Task 17

a – ściśle przestrzegany, -a, -e; b – choroba, której istnienie się podejrzewa; c – wygląd makroskopowy; d – wytyczne, wskazówki; e – specyfika

Task 18

a – bathes, b – cushion, c – skull, d – absorber, e – nutrients, f – waste, g – diagnosing, h – lumber, i – side, j – injecting, k – hollow, l – lower, m – tablespoons, n – syringe

Task 19

a – on, b – on, c – out, d – into, e – from, f – of, g – with, h – from, i – of, j – for, k – of, l – of, m – to

Task 20

Clearly mentioned steps: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 17

Steps that are not clearly mentioned: 12, 16

Steps that are not mentioned: 1, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20

Unit 7: Microscopic Studies

Task 2

A: a) a useful tool; b) malignancy; c) determination of hormone receptor assay results; d) sexually transmitted diseases; e) transplant rejection

B: a – biopsy, b – wet mount, c – microbiological culture, d – smear, e – Papanicolaou smear

Task 3

a – coarse adjuster (coarse focus knob); b – fine adjuster (fine focus knob); c – arm (carrying arm); d – stage clips; e – inclination joint; f – base; g – eyepiece lens (ocular); h – tube (barrel, body tube); i – revolving nosepiece (turret); j – objective lenses; k – stage; l – condenser (diaphragm, iris); m – illuminator

Task 4

a – for, b – from, c – to, d – through, e – on, f – through, g – through, h – to

Task 5

Possible questions:

1. What did Robert Koch, a celebrated German physician, founder of modern bacteriology, and pioneering microbiologist do in 1878?

2. Why do contemporary scientists still grow microorganisms in the laboratory?

3. What is it [a microbial culture]?

4. How is the usual culture is obtained? /Where is the usual culture obtained from?

5. What is one of the primary diagnostic methods of microbiology used to determine the cause of an infectious disease?

Task 6

a – living, b – unaided, c – non-living, d – unicellular, e – visible, f – multicellular, g – microscopic, h – medical, i – capable

Task 7

1e, 2f, 3b, 4c, 5d, 6a

Task 9

a – routine, b – maximize, c – better, d – appropriate, e – frequently

Task 10

1d, 2f, 3b, 4c, 5a, 6e

Task 12

1b, 2c, 3a, 4b, 5c, 6b

Task 13

1. a) growing, b) to prevent, c) falling, d) to protect, e) to use, f) to guard

2. a) storing, b) evaporating, c) to harden, d) tearing, e) to reach, f) introducing

Task 14

1b, 2c, 3a

Task 15

A. Form (shape): a) punctiform (tiny pinpoints), b) spindle, c) circular, d) irregular, e) filamentous, f) rhizoid (root-like)

B. Elevation (height): a) raised (slightly elevated), b) convex (dome-shaped), c) pulvinate (cushion-shaped), d) flat, e) umbonate (having a knobby protuberance), f) crateriform

C. Margin (edge): a) entire (smooth), b) udulate (wavy), c) filiform (filamentous, thread-like), d) curled, e) lobate (lobed), f) serrate (erose, tooth-like)

Task 16

1. size: punctiform (tiny, pinpoint), small, medium, large

2. consistency or texture: dry, mucoid (sticky, mucus-like), moist, viscid (sticks to loop, hard to get off), butyrous (butter-like texture), or brittle/friable (dry, breaks apart)

3. appearance/surface: shiny (glistening, glossy) and smooth, however it can be dull (opposite to glistening), veined, rough, granular, papillate, shrivelled, wrinkled (rugose), or contain concentric rings

4. colour (pigmentation): yellow

5. optical property/opacity: opaque (impervious to light; not transparent or clear), translucent (lets light through diffusely; almost clear but distorted vision, like looking through frosted glass), or transparent (allows light to pass through without disruption), iridescent (changing colours in reflected light)

Task 17

Possible translations:

1. Bacteria grow and reproduce more quickly when they are warm than when they are cold.

2. Solid medium is used for the isolation of bacteria as pure culture.

3. Agar is a gelatinous substance obtained from certain seaweeds.

4. Agar is an ideal solidifying agent; it is bacteriologically inert, remains solid at 37°C, and is transparent.

5. Synthetic media are prepared from pure chemical substances.

6. Synthetic media are used in research work.

7. A throat swab culture (throat culture) is a test commonly used to diagnose bacterial infections in the throat.

8. Confluent growth is the excessive and continuous growth of bacteria, in which the bacterial colonies are not discrete.

9. It is essential to isolate a pure culture of microorganisms.

10. An axenic (or pure) culture is a population of cells or multicellular organisms growing in the absence of other species or types.

11. The most common growth media for microorganisms are nutrient broths and agar plates.

12. Specialized media are required for some microorganisms.

13. Bacteria may be introduced to the media, i.e. inoculated.

14. After use, bacterial cultures must be sterilised by the use of heat, before disposal.

15. In the streaking procedure, a sterile loop or swab is used to obtain an uncontaminated microbial culture.

Task 18

B

□2 Treat them with 1:15 dilution of Lugol’s iodine.

□3 Decolorize them with ethanol or ethanol-acetone.

□4 Counterstain the microorganisms with a contrasting dye, usually safranin.

□1 Stain the microorganisms with crystal violet.

Task 19

1. bacteria can be distinguished from one another by their morphology

2. test that allows clinicians to distinguish between two major classes of bacteria

3. stained with crystal violet

4. treated with 1:15 dilution of Lugol’s iodine

5. decolorized with ethanol

6. bacteria that are starved[17]

7. to provide a means of classification

8. other staining techniques have been developed

Task 20

A a – coccus; b – bacillus; c – coccobacillus; d – fusiform bacillus; e – vibrio; f – coryneform; g – spirillum; h – spirochete; i – branched filaments

B a – diplococcus; b – tetrad; c – streptococcus; d – staphylococcus; e – sarcina

Task 21

Possible answers:

a) free-living bacteria – bacteria that exist as independent organisms

b) saprophytic or obsolete bacteria – bacteria that grow on decaying organic matter and have a type of nutrition involving uptake of organic materials in dissolved form obtained from dead or decaying plant or animal matter.

c) parasitic bacteria – bacteria that live upon or within another living organism (a host) at whose expense they obtain some advantage (e.g. derive their nutriment partly or wholly from it) and without whom they cannot live. Usually they cause death or damage to their host.

d) pathogenic bacteria – bacteria that give origin to disease or to morbid symptoms; pathogenic bacteria cause infectious diseases.

Task 22

1: a – internal, b – external; 2: a – thick; 3: a – thin; 4: a – outer, b – external

Task 23

a) [layer of peptidoglycan] which accounts for only 5% to 10% of the Gram– cell wall by weight

b) there are no teichoic or lipoteichoic acids in the Gram– cell wall

c) in addition, Gram– cell wall has one very unique feature

Task 24

A.

Characteristics of external structures

Gram+ bacteria

cytoplasmic membrane surrounded by a thick multilayed cell wall; cell wall consists of peptidoglycan with attached teichoic acids

Gram– bacteria

cell wall composed of a thin layer of peptidoglycan; a thin layer of peptidoglycan covered by an outer membrane of lipoprotein and lipopolysaccharide; lack of teichoic or lipoteichoic acids in the cell wall; presence of outer membrane that is external to the layer of peptidoglycan

B.

1. Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria have similar internal structures, but their external structures are quite different.

2. In Gram-positive bacterium the cytoplasmic membrane is surrounded by a thick, multilayered cell wall consisting of peptidoglycan with attached teichoic acids, whereas Gram-negative bacterium has a cell wall composed of a thin layer of peptidoglycan covered by an outer membrane of lipoprotein and lipopolysaccharide.

3. It is worth noticing, that there are no teichoic or lipoteichoic acids in the Gram-negative cell wall.

4. Additionally, Gram-negative bacterial cell has one very unique feature-the outer membrane which is external to the peptidoglycan layer.

Task 26

1. they are usually spoken of as a separate group, i.e. chemotherapeutics

2. organisms should be tested for sensitivity to antibiotics

3. to allow the physician some latitude in the ultimate choice of therapy

4. the use of a particular drug in a given patient

5. the selection of drugs to be tested

6. organisms in question

Task 27

insensitivity – sensitivity

incorrect – correct

desirable – undesirable

ineffective – effective

Task 28

□2 Inoculum from this culture is then spread across the surface of a nutrient agar plate in a manner that gives heavy confluent growth.

□4 Each organism is scored as sensitive, intermediate or resistant, according to the size of the inhibition zone.

□1 Several colonies of the organism to be tested are inoculated into Todd-Hewitt broth and grown to a standard optical density.

□3 Disks containing antibiotics are placed on the agar. After incubation, the diameter of zone of growth inhibition around each antibiotic disk is measured.

Task 29

a – bactericidal; b – endpoint; c – subculturing; d – turbidity; e – inoculum; f – bacteriostatic; g – lethal

Task 31

B

1) the Etest® trademark now enjoys international recognition

2) a prerequisite for management of critical infections

3) Etest is recognized as a cost-effective tool

4) it is also widely used

5) a prerequisite for management of critical infections

Task 32

Possible translations:

1. Bacteria should be tested for sensitivity to antibiotics and sulphonamides.

2. Acute infection may result in sepsis.

3. This symptom is attributed only to the bacterial infection.

4. Do you know the rules of the clinical management of infections?

5. Bacteria cannot be distinguished from one another by their colour.

6. This bacterial culture should be treated with 1:15 dilution of Lugol’s iodine and then decolorized with ethanol.

7. Let’s test by Etest the resistance of bacteria in question.

Task 33

Possible questions and answers:

1. Is it easy to distinguish a bacterial infection from a viral infection?

Viral infections are the most common infections affecting children and adults. Infections from viruses are often indistinguishable from bacterial infections. Most viral infections have common symptoms that are flu-like and include fever, lethargy, headache, and body aches.

2. Why do we need laboratory testing for viral infections?

It is very important to make a distinction between bacterial and viral infections because medications (e.g. antibiotics) that are effective against bacteria aren’t effective against viruses. Since certain viral infections are potentially life-threatening, it is necessary to conduct viral tests. These tests help clinicians to make diagnoses and administer proper treatment.

3. What people are more exposed to viruses?

Infants, the elderly, the immunocompromised, people with lung or heart disorders are at risk for serious complications caused by viruses.

4. When are viral tests done?

Testing for a virus is indicated in the following situations:

• When a patient has severe symptoms contributing to significant morbidity.

• To find a viral infection in an organ to be transplanted.

• To test a pregnant woman who has a high risk of passing a serious viral infection on to her baby.

• To find a viral infection in a potential blood donor to prevent the donation of infected blood.

• When a person with viral symptoms lives or has travelled to an area harbouring the virus.

• For epidemiologic reasons to identify a viral outbreak and its extent.

• To indicate immunity after exposure to the virus or a vaccination.

5. What types of samples are used for a viral test?

Different types of samples are used for a viral test, including blood, urine, stool (faeces), organ tissue, spinal fluid, and saliva. The type of sample used for the test depends on the type of infection that may be present.

6. What types of tests may be used to check for viruses?

Viral testing is performed by identifying:

• Antibodies to a specific antigen in the blood or body fluids (e.g. mononucleosis or Epstein-Barr)

• Antigen parts of the virus by Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) (e.g. respiratory syncytial or influenza A or B) or Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (NAAT) (e.g. Dengue)

• Virus cultured in special media

• Virus by electron microscopy

7. What viruses have highest clinical priorities nowadays?

Epstein-Barr, hepatitis, respiratory syncytial, herpes, HIV, Dengue fever, Coxsackie, choriomeningitis, mumps, West Nile, arbovirus, equine, cytomegalovirus, rubella, and influenza A, B are among the viruses that have highest clinical priorities nowadays.

Task 34

A:

a) administer proper treatment, b) to make diagnoses, c) a viral outbreak, d) indistinguishable, e) mumps, f) herpes, g) equine influenza, h) rubella, i) hepatitis, j) a high risk of passing a serious viral infection onto [...] baby, k) viral infections are potentially life-threatening, l) exposure to the virus, m) highest clinical priorities, n) the elderly, o) the immunocompromised

B:

(1) 1k, 2i, 3l, 4c, 5h, 6m, 7j, 8e, 9b, 10g, 11a, 12f, 13d

(2) vaginal thrush-yeast fungi diphtheria, typhoid, pertussis, tetanus-bacteria

Task 35

A: 1 – virus, 2 – culture, 3 – antibodies, 4 – antigens

B: 1. Viral DNA or RNA detection test, 2. Viral culture, 3. Antibody test, 4. Viral antigen detection test.

Task 37

a) correct, b) definitive, c) load, d) progression, e) severity, f) response

Task 39

1) unlike most bacteria, fungi, and parasites

2) the causative agent

3) viruses lack the capacity to make energy

4) virus that utilizes an RNA intermediate

5) viruses are obligate intracellular parasites

6) [virus] must escape elimination by the host immune response

Task 40

a – agents; b – viruses; c – circles; d – resistant; e – denaturing; f – encode; g – replicate; h – diseases; i – tuber, j – species

Task 41

1. AIDS

2. REPLICATION

3. GENOME

4. SYNDROME

5. REPRODUCTION

6. VIRUSES

Solution: DIENER (Theodor O. Diener)

Viroids were discovered and given this name by Theodor O. Diener, a plant pathologist at the Agricultural Research Service in Maryland, in 1971.

Task 42

A. a – naked capsid virus; b – enveloped virus

B. a) Naked (unenveloped) viruses contain only RNA or DNA and a protein coat (capsid). The capsid protects the nucleic acid from nucleases. For naked viruses, it also serves as an attachment vehicle to cells-the major determinant of host range.

b) Enveloped viruses contain only RNA or DNA and a protein coat (capsid), as well as an envelope, a lipid-containing membrane. The capsid protects the nucleic acid from nucleases and glycoprotein spikes embedded in the envelope serve as the attachment site to specific host cell receptors.

Task 43

Possible translations:

1. For naked viruses, the protein coat not only protects the nucleic acid from nucleases but also serves as an attachment vehicle to cells.

2. What is the major determinant of host range?

3. Enveloped viruses contain only RNA or DNA and protein coat (capsid), as well as an envelope, a lipid-containing membrane.

4. Viruses were first described as “filterable agents”.

5. Hepatitis B virus is a DNA virus which utilizes RNA intermediate.

Task 45

1. Viruses can be grouped by characteristics such as:

a) size

b) morphology

c) vector

d) disease

e) target tissue

f) geographic locale.

2. Consequently, the name of a virus may describe:

a) its characteristics

b) the diseases it is associated with

c) the body site it attacks

d) the geographic locale it was first identified.

3. Retrovirus refers to the virus-directed synthesis of DNA from an RNA template.

4. Ebola virus is named after Ebola River in northern Zaire, where the disease was first observed in 1976.

5. The most consistent and current means of classification is by physical and biochemical characteristics, such as size, morphology, type of genome, and means of replication.

6. DNA viruses associated with human diseases are divided into 7 families; RNA viruses can be divided into at least 14 families.

Task 46

Enveloped virus

a – envelope; b – genome (single stranded DNA/ssDNA); c – icosahedral capsid; d – capsomer

Task 47

1b, 2c, 3a, 4a, 5b, 6b, 7a

Task 48

1. The host cell is compared to a factory because it provides the substrates, energy and machinery for the synthesis of viral proteins and replication of the genome.

2. a) the eclipse period; b) the early stage of infection; c) the latent period; d) the late phase

Task 49

a – of, b – from, c – by, d – in, e – by, f – from, g – without, h – of

Task 50

1f, 2e, 3a, 4g, 5d, 6h, 7c, 8b

Task 51

Possible answer:

Vaccine – a preparation of a weakened or killed pathogen, such as a bacterium or virus, or of a portion of the pathogen’s structure that upon administration to an individual stimulates antibody production or cellular immunity against the pathogen but is incapable of causing severe infection; a substance that is usually injected into a person or animal to protect against a particular disease.

Task 53

A. a) needle biopsy, b) fine-needle aspiration biopsy, c) incisional biopsy (or core biopsy), d) scrape, e) stereotactic biopsy, f) endoscopic biopsy g) colposcopic biopsy, h) capsule biopsy, i) punch biopsy, j) core needle biopsy, k) excisional biopsy

B. a) benign, b) malignant, cancerous, c) whole lump, d) targeted area, e) transplant

Task 54

1. Fluid and very small pieces of tissue can be obtained via a fine needle aspiration (FNA).

2. This is performed using a thinner needle than that used in a core biopsy, but with a similar technique.

3. This type of material is usually liquid rather than solid, and is submitted for cytology rather than histology.

4. For immediate diagnosis during a surgical procedure a frozen section is done.

5. The attending doctor will explain and discuss the results of the biopsy with the patient and his or her family.

Task 55

1c, 2d, 3b, 4a

Task 57

1b, 2c, 3c, 4c, 5a, 6a, 7c

Task 58

Translate into English:

1. The tissue samples are sent to the lab and examined by a pathologist.

2. The tissue samples may be chemically treated and sliced up into very thin sections.

3. The tissue samples are usually studied under a microscope.

4. A haematologist may also study the sample.

5. The thin slice is attached to a glass slide.

6. Remaining tissue is usually stored for later studies.

7. The pathologist can determine whether the sample is malignant or benign.

Task 59

a – patient information: name, birth date, address

b – name of the health care provider who ordered the report

c – diagnosis

d, g – pathologist’s signature and name and address of the laboratory

e – microscopic description/examination

f – gross description/examination

h – name and address of the laboratory

i – biopsy date

Task 61

1 – tumour markers, 2 – cell receptors

Task 62

Possible explanations:

a) The cancer is progesterone-receptor-positive (PR+) if it has progesterone receptors. Again, this means that the cancer cells may receive signals from progesterone that could promote their growth. Roughly two out of every three breast cancers test positive for hormone receptors.

b) If the cancer is hormone-receptor-negative (no receptors are present), then hormonal therapy is unlikely to work.

Unit 8: Laboratory Genetics

Task 2

A: 1) specific traits, 2) (gene) locus, 3) offspring, 4) diseases and disorders, 5) unit of heredity, 6) qualitative trait, 7) quantitative trait, 8) environmental

factors, 9) incomplete penetrance, 10) genetic variants

B. The abbreviation for the: a) deoxyribonucleic acid is DNA; b) ribonucleic acid is RNA.

Task 3

A. Genes are the basic unit of genetics.

B. Genes influence what we look like on the outside and how we work on the inside.

C. Genes contain the information our bodies need to make chemicals called proteins.

D. A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a specific protein.

E. Genes are made of a chemical called DNA, which is short for ‘deoxyribonucleic acid’.

F. The DNA molecule is a double helix, i.e. two long, thin strands twisted around each other like a spiral staircase.

G. Human beings have 20,000 to 25,000 genes.

H. Genes account for only about 3 per cent of our DNA.

I. The function of the remaining 97 per cent is still not clear.

J. Scientists think the remaining 97 per cent of our DNA may have something to do with controlling the genes.

Task 4

a – arrangement, b – location, c – locus, d – marker, e – chromosome, f – linkage, g – linkage, h – location, i – chromosome, j – inheritance, k – recombinant DNA, l – inheritance, m – traits

Task 6

a) offspring carry traits from both parents

b) [chromosomes] are arranged in pairs

c) [chromosomes ] ensure the DNA is accurately replicated

d) mature individual

e) [chromosomes] vary in number and shapes

f) a key part of this process

g) tightly wrapped

h) too large for the inside of the cells

i) [genetic material] passes from parents to child

j) too vulnerable

Task 7

Possible answers:

thread-like – like a thread; living – having life, being alive; circular – having the form of a circle, round; linear – extended in a line; reproductive – relating to reproduction, procreative; mature – having reached full development or growth, grown-up, adult; complex – composite; single – distinct, solitary, individual, consisting of one part or unit; responsible – being the primary cause, in charge, accountable; unique – uncommon, individual, particular, different; worn-out – unfit for use because of extensive exploitation, overused, deteriorated, exhausted; intact – all in one piece, whole, unbroken, undamaged, untouched; serious – severe; defective – damaged, broken, abnormal; broken – defective, destroyed, crippled, ruptured; severe – serious

Task 8

Singular form of the noun

Plural form of the noun

puberty

puberties

locus

loci

allele

alleles

offspring

offspring, also offsprings

parent

parents

anomaly

anomalies

kidney

kidneys

Singular form of the noun

Plural form of the noun

heterozygote

heterozygotes

abnormality

abnormalities

helix

helices, also helixes

medium

media

Task 9

a – DNA double helix; b – histone, c – deoxyribonucleic acid; d – telomere; e – p arm; f – chromosome, g – centromere, h – q arm, i – telomere; j – chromatids

Task 11

1. genetic structure of a cell

2. to come together in a group

3. received through genetic transmission from one’s parent or parents

4. giving or providing information

5. based on, on account of, thanks to, due to

6. detectable, capable of being traced, attributable

Task 12

1c, 2a, 3d, 4b

Task 13

1b, 2e, 3a, 4c, 5d

Task 14

a – of, b – of, c – onto, d – on, e – in, f – of, g – in, h – of, i – in

Task 16

a – refute, b – awareness, c – nowadays, d – prenatal, e – prognostication, f – forensic

Task 17

a – about, b – in, c – on, d – before, e – at, f – during, g – for, h – of, i – about, j – of

Task 18

Possible answers:

A. Molecular genetics is useful in understanding and treating genetic diseases.

Molecular genetics is used to:

– detect mutation carriers

– diagnose genetic disorders

– test at-risk foetuses

– identify patients at risk of developing adult-onset conditions, for example familial cancers.

B. Biochemical genetics is frequently used to: diagnose metabolic disorders that affect the body’s ability to produce or break down amino acids, organic acids, and fatty acids. Biochemical genetics studies:

– the cause of many specific heritable diseases resulting from the improper synthesis of haemoglobin and protein

– inborn errors of metabolism (e.g. phenylketonuria and galactosemia) in which lack or alteration of a specific enzyme prohibits proper metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, or fats and thus produces pathologic symptoms

– genetically determined variations in response to certain drugs (e.g. isoniazid).

Biochemical testing can differentiate heterozygous carriers from non-carriers of genes by metabolite and enzymatic analysis of physiologic fluids and tissues.

C. Cytogenetics is used to:

– identify chromosome disorders that cause spontaneous abortions, congenital malformations, mental retardation, and infertility

– evaluate women with gonadal dysgenesis and couples with repeated spontaneous miscarriages.

– diagnose and classify leukaemias, lymphomas, myeloma, and myeloproliferative diseases.

This laboratory method also helps with decisions about treatment and monitoring disease status and recovery.

D. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a technique used to:

– visualize and map the genetic material (i.e. specific genes or DNA sequences) in an individual’s cells

– identify well-characterized hereditary genetic microdeletion, microduplication, or rearrangement inherited disorders (such as DiGeorge syndrome)

– evaluate oncology specimens (i.e. help determine the specific type of cancer, predict disease course, and determine a course of treatment)

– assist in the diagnosis and monitoring of patients with cancer (such as breast cancers, leukaemia, and lymphomas)

– determine ploidy status of newborns or of cancers

– evaluate amniotic fluid, products of conception, and chorionic villi.

FISH uses small pieces of DNA called probes:

• Locus specific probes are useful when a small portion of a gene has been isolated to determine on which chromosome the gene is located, or how many copies of a gene exist within a particular genome.

• Alphoid or centromeric repeat probes are used to determine whether an individual has the correct number of chromosomes.

• Whole chromosome probes are particularly useful for examining chromosomal abnormalities (e.g. when a piece of one chromosome is attached to the end of another chromosome).

E. Microarray analysis is used to:

– identify unbalanced chromosomal abnormalities (loss and/or gain of DNA) in patients with unexplained abnormal phenotypes (e.g. persons with mental retardation, developmental delay, dysmorphic features, congenital anomalies, and autism)

– identify diseases associated with oligonucleotide and SNP-based genetic diseases.

The SNP-based array will also identify long contiguous stretches of homozygosity, which may suggest an increased likelihood for a recessive condition or uniparental disomy.

F. The next-generation sequencing methods offer:

– very high resolution (single base pair), they require very little amount of genetic material

– possibilities of detecting many different types of genetic polymorphisms including, e.g. short indels (insertions/deletions).

In addition to whole-genome sequencing, a specific region of DNA can be targeted and sequenced by using, e.g. targeted sequencing.

It is worth noticing that microarray technology and the next-generation sequencing are high-throughput technologies and they produce tremendous amounts of data that need to be analysed using very advanced bioinformatics methods.

Thus, the advent of these technologies gave a very strong impulse for the development of computational genetics and bioinformatics.

Task 19

a) adult-onset conditions, b) at-risk foetuses, c) insight, d) availability, e) familial cancers

Task 20

a) molecular, b) genetic, c) structural, d) familial, e) clinical, f) helpful, g) able, h) available, i) risky, j) possible, k) difficult, l) dangerous, m) causative

Task 21

a) wrodzone błędy metabolizmu

b) niedokrwistość sierpowata

c) nieprawidłowa synteza

d) podstawowe zależności (związki, powiązania wzajemne)

e) rozróżniać, różnicować, odgraniczać

Task 22

a) involves, b) makes, c) breaks, d) uses, e) caused, f) make, g) needs, h) called, i) improve, j) screen, k) work, l) provide, m) need

Task 23

1. miscarriage, 2. myeloma, 3. congenital malformation, 4. lymphoma, 5. mental retardation, 6. gonadal dysgenesis, 7. myeloproliferative diseases

Task 24

A and B

1) karyotyping, 2) lymphoma, myeloma, 3) dysgenesis, malformation, 4) myeloproliferative, 5) cytogenetics, 6) spontaneous, gonadal, 7) leukaemia, 8) infertility, 9) congenital

Task 26

1 – sequence, 2 – probes, 3 – fluorochromes, 4 – chromosome, 5 – location, 6 – stranded

Task 27

a) mental retardation, b) developmental delay, c) array, d) dysmorphic features, e) congenital anomalies, f) uniparental disomy, g) autism, h) likelihood, i) contiguous, j) stretches of homozygosity

Task 28

1) unbalance, rearrangements, 2) abnormalities, 3) nonsanguineous, 4) imbalance, 5) disjunction, 6) nondisjunction, 7) disorder, 8) congenital, disability, 9) dysmorphic, 10) unexplained

Task 29

a) advent, b) computational genetics, c) It is worth noticing that …, d) tremendous amounts of data, e) advanced bioinformatics methods, f) high-throughput

Task 30

a) next-generation, b) high-throughput, c) catch-all, d) modern, e) cheaply, f) previously, g) molecular

Task 32

a) change his or her mind at any time

b) to make medical decisions

c) legally authorized representative

d) to notify the healthcare provider

e) not to continue with the testing process.

Task 33

Possible translations:

1. How will the genetic tests be carried out?

2. What do the test results mean?

3. Are there any physical or emotional risks associated with genetic tests?

4. Do the results provide information about the possibility of having affected children?

5. Do the results provide information about the risk of developing a particular condition?

6. What will happen to the specimen after the test is complete?

7. Can the results be used for research purposes?

8. To whom the test results will be reported?

List of Specialist Words and Abbreviations

List of Specialist Words

(see also Appendices 2–8 and Table 1a ‘Rules of naming acids and their corresponding salts’ p. 17)

A

abortion [e’booryszyn] aborcja

acetone [’asetołn] aceton

acid [asyd] kwas

~ -base balance [~ bejs balens] równowaga kwasowo-zasadowa

deoxyribonucleic ~ [dii’oksy’rajbołnuu’kliiyk ~] ~ deoksyrybonukleinowy

~ -fast stain [~ faast stejn] barwienie metodą Ziehl-Neelsena

lactic ~ [laktyk ~] ~ mlekowy

ribonucleic ~ [’rajbołnuu’kliiyk ~] ~ rybonukleinowy

teichoic ~ [ti’koik ~] ~ tejchojowy

uric ~ [juryk ~] ~ moczowy

acidity [e’sydyti] kwasowość

acidosis [asy’dołsys] acydoza, kwasica

adenoid [’adenoid] adenoidalny, nosowy, limfatyczny

adenovirus [adnoł’wajres] adenowirus

affinity [e’fynyti] powinowactwo, bliskość, pokrewieństwo

agar [ejgaa(r)] agar

agent [ejdżynt] czynnik

agglutination [agluty’nejszyn] aglutynacja

agranulocyte [e’granjulosajt] agranulocyt

albumin, albumen [al’bjumyn] albumina

alkali [’alkelaj], pl. alkalis [’alkelajz] zasada

alkaline [’alkelajn], [’alkalyn] alkaliczny, zasadowy

allele [a’liil] allel

allergy [’ale(r)dżi] alergia

alphoid DNA [alfojd dii en ej] alfa satelitarny DNA

amino acid [a’minoł asyd] aminokwas

aminotransferase [aminoł’transferejs] aminotransferaza

ammonia [a’mołnja] amoniak

amniocentesis [aminoł’sentiisys] amniocenteza

amniotic [emnii’oyk] amniotyczny

amoeboid [a’miiboid] ameboidalny

amorphous [a’mo(r)fes] amorficzny

anaerobe [’enerołb] bakteria beztlenowa

anaerobic [ene’rołbyk] anaerobowy, beztlenowy

analyte [’enalajt] analit

anaemia [e’niimja] anemia

sickle cell ~ [’sykyl sel e’niimja] ~ sierpowata

anaesthetic [anes’fetyk] anestetyk, lek przeciwbólowy

anorexia [ano’reksja] anoreksja

antacid [an’tasyd] zobojętniający, środek zobojętniający kwas

antecubital [an’tiikjubytyl] odłokciowy

anti- [anti-] przedrostek anti- znaczy przeciw, przeciwko

~-inflammatory [antiyn’flemetri] przeciwzapalny; lek przeciwzapalny

~arrhythmic [antie’rywmyk] lek przeciwarytmiczny

~biotic [antibaj’otyk] antybiotyk

~body US [entbaadi], Br.[anti’bodi] przeciwciało

~coagulant [antikoł’agjulent] przeciwzakrzepowy; lek przeciwzakrzepowy

~convulsant [antiken’wulsent] przeciwdrgawkowy, lek przeciwdrgawkowy

~fungal [anti’fangyl] przeciwgrzybiczy; lek przeciwgrzybiczy

~genic [anti’dżenik] antygenowy

~microbial [antimaj’krołjal] przeciwdorobnoustrojowy

~septic [anti’septyk] antyseptyczny; antyseptyk

aqueous [ekłjes] wodny;

~ humour [~ hjuume(r)] ciecz wodnista oka

arbovirus [a(r)’bowajres] arbowirus

array [e’rej] komp. macierz

arterial [aa(r)’tyrjel] tętniczy

artery [’aa(r)teri] tętnica

arthrocentesis [aa(r)frosen’tisys] artrocenteza

ascaris [’askarys] glista

aseptic [ej’septyk] aseptyczny

aspartate [a’spartejt] asparaginian

aspirate [’aspyryt] aspirat

aspiration [aspy’rejszyn] aspiracja

assay [e’sej], [asey] próba/test chemiczny; przeprowadzać badania/testy chemiczne

attenuation [etenju’ejszyn] atenuacja (odzjadliwienie, osłabienie np. lekiem) proces otrzymywania odmian patogenów o obniżonej chorobotwórczości, przy utrzymanym poziomie ich immunologicznego oddziaływania na organizm (np. w celu wytworzenia szczepionki)

autism [’ootyzem] autyzm

autoclave [’ootoklejw] sterylizować w autoklawie; autoklaw

autoimmune [ootoły’mjujn] autoimmunologiczny

autosomal [’ootosołm] autosomalny

azurophilic [eżjuroł’fylyk] azurofilny

B

bacillus [be’syles], pl. bacilli [be’sylaj] bakcyl

base [bejs] chem. zasada

basophil [’bejsofyl] bazofil

beaver fever [biiwe(r) fiiwe(r)] = lambliasis

benign [by’najn] łagodny, niezłośliwy (o nowotworze)

biconcave [baj’konkejw] dwuwklęsły

bile [bajl] żółć; ~ duct [~ dakt] przewód żółciowy

bilirubin [byly’ruubyn], [’bylyruubyn] bilirubina

binary [bajneri] binarny, podwójny

bioinformatics [bajoł ynfo(r)’matyks] bioinformatyka

biopsy [’bajopsi] biopsja

capsule [ kaps(j)uul ~] ~ kapsułkowa

colposcopic ~ [kolpoł’skopyk ~] ~ kolposkopowa

core needle ~ [koo(r) niidyl ~] ~ gruboigłowa

endoscopic ~ [endoł’skopyk ~] ~ endoskopowa

excisional entire ~ [ek’syżynyl ~] ~ wycinająca

fine-needle aspiration ~ [fajn niidyl aspy’rejszyn ~] ~ aspiracyjna cienkoigłowa

incisional ~ [yn’syżynyl ~] ~ wycinkowa

needle ~ [niidyl ~] ~ igłowa

punch ~ [pancz ~] ~ sztancowa (biopsja trepanem)

sterotactic ~ [steriioł’taktyk ~] ~ stereotaktyczna

bismuth [byzmef] bizmut

~ subsalicylate [~ sab sa’lysylejt] subsalicylan ~u

bladder [blade(r)] pęcherz moczowy

~ catheterization = pot. bladder tap [blade(r) tap] [blade(r) kafeteraj’zejszyn] cewnikowanie pęcherza moczowego

blastospore [’blastospor] blastospora

bleach [bliicz] wybielacz

blood draw [blad droo] pobieranie krwi (do badań)

bloodstream [’bladstriim] krwiobieg

body fluid [bodi ~] płyn ustrojowy

bowel [bałyl] = intestine

large ~ [laardż ~]

small ~ [smool ~]

Bowman(’s) capsule [bołmen(z) ’kaps(j)ul] torebka Bowmana/kłębuszka nerkowego

brachial [brejkjel] ramieniowy

bronchodilator [bronkołdaj’lejter], [bronkołdi’lejter] rozszerzający naczynia; lek rozszerzający naczynia

broth [brof] bulion (pożywka dla mikroorganizmów)

Todd-Hewitt ~ [tod hjuyt ~] ~ Todd-Hewitt(a)

Bunyavirus [’banjawajres] Bunyavirus

C

calcium [kalsjem] wapń

~ carbonate [~ ’kaa(r)benejt] węglan wapnia

~ oxalate [~’okselejt] szczawian wapnia

calyx [kejlyks], [kalyks] kielich (np. nerkowy)

cancerous [’kanseres] rakowaty; nowotworowy (złośliwy)

candidiasis [kendy’dajesys] kandydoza, grzybica

cannula [’kenjula] kaniula, rurka

capillary [ke’pylery] włosowaty, naczynie włosowate

capsid [kapsyd] kapsyd

capsomere [’kaapsomer] kapsomer

capsula glomeruli [’kapsjuula glo’mereli] = Bowman’s capsule

carbohydrate [kaa(r)boł’hajdrejt] węglowodan

carbon dioxide [’kaa(r)ben daj’oksajd] dwutlenek węgla

carbonate [’kaa(r)benejt] węglan

cardiotonic [kaa(r)dioł’tonyk] nasercowy; środek nasercowy

cascade [kas’kejd] kaskada

clotting ~ [klotyng ~] ~ krzepnięcia

cast [kaast] wałeczek nerkowy w moczu

catalyst [’katalyst] katalizator

catalyse [’ketelajz] katalizować

catheter [’kafeter] cewnik

foley ~ [fołlii ~] ~ Foleya

catheterization [kafete’rajzejszyn] cewnikowanie

cavity [’kawyti] jama ciała

celiac disease [’siiljak dyziiz] celiaklia, nietolerancja glutenu

cellular [’seljule(r)] komórkowy

centromere [’sentromjier] centromer

centrifuge [’sentrifjudż] wirować; wirówka

centromeric [sentro’meryk] centromeryczny

cerebrospinal [seriibroł’spajnal] mózgowo-rdzeniowy

cerumen [syr’uumen] woszczyna

cervical [’seerwykyl] szyjny

cestoda [ses’tooda] tasiemce

chemical compound [kemykyl ’kompałnd] związek chemiczny

chemiluminiscent [kemilumy’nesent] chemiluminescencyjny

chemotherapy [kiimo’ferapi] chemioterapia/chemoterapia

chickenpox [czykyn’poks] = varicella

chloride [klorajd] chlorek

chlorophyll [’klorofyl] chlorofil

cholesterol [’ko’lest(e)rol] cholesterol

choriomeningitis [korjomenyn’dżajtys] zapalenie splotu naczyniówkowego

lymphocytic ~ [lymfo’sytyk ~] limfocytarne ~

chorionic [kor’jonyk] naczyniówkowy, -a, -e

chromatid [’krołmatyd] chromatyda

chromatin [krołmatyn] chromatyna

chromosomal [krołmo’sołmal] chromosomowy/chromosomalny

chromosome [’krołmosom] chromosom

cirrhosis [sy’rusys] marskość

citrate [sytrejt], [sajtrejt] cytrynian

trisodium ~ [traj’sołdjem ~] ~ trisodowy/trójsodowy

clean-catch urine specimen [kliin kecz juryn ’spesymyn] „czysta” próbka moczu

clearance [klirens] klirens

clotting [klotyng] krzepnięcie

clue cell [kluu sel] komórka jeżowa

coagulation [kołagju’lejszyn] koagulacja, krzepnięcie

coccobacillus [kokołbe’syles] pałeczka niewytwarzająca endospor, forma bakterii, coccobacillus

coccus [kakes], pl. cocci [koksaj] bakteria o kształcie kulistym, ziarenkowiec

cold sore [’kołld soo(r)] = herpes simplex

colitis [ko’lajtys] zapalenie okrężnicy

colloid [koloid] koloid

computational genetics [kompju’tejszynyl dże’netyks] genetyka obliczeniowa

con-sanguineous [kon sang’łynjes] spokrewniony, krewny

~ parents [kon sang’łynjes perents] spokrewnieni rodzice

confluent [’konfluuent] zlewny

~ growth [~ grołf] wzrost (mikroorganizmów) ~

congenital [kon’dżenytyl] wrodzony

contagious [kon’tejdżes] zakaźny

contamination [kontamy’nejszyn] skażenie, zanieczyszczenie

convoluted [’konwolutyd] zwinięty, skłębiony

corrosive [ko’rołsyw] żrący (np. kwas); korozyjny

cortex [koo(r)teks] kora

corticosteroid [koo(r)tykoł’steroyd] kortykosteroid

coryneform [ko’rynefoorm] bakterie z grupy „coryneform”

cosegregate [kon’segregejt] konsegregować

cosegregation [kosegre’gejszyn] kosegregacja

counterstain [’kałnterstejn], [kałnter’stajn] barwić kontrastowo; barwnik kontrastowy; barwienie kontrastowe

coxsackie [koks’saki] wirus Coxsackie

creatine [’kriietiin] kreatyna

Crohn’s disease [krołns dy’ziiz] choroba Crohna

cross-contamination [kros kontamy’nejszyn] skażenie/zakażenie krzyżowe

croup [kruup] = diphteria, obstructive laryngitis

crystal violet [krystyl ’wajelet] fiolet krystaliczny

crystalline [’krystelajn] krystaliczny

cubital [kjuubytyl] łokciowy

culture [kalcze(r)] hodowla/kultura (bakterii itp.)

cyst [syst] cysta, torbiel

cystine [’systiin] cystyna

cytogenetics [sajtołdże’netyks] cytogenetyka

cytomegalovirus [sajtołmegaloł’wajres] cytomegalowirus

cytometry [sajtoł’metri] cytometria

flow ~ [floł ~] ~ przepływowa

cytoplasm [’sajtołplazm] cytoplazma

cytoplasmic [sajtoł’plazmyk] cytoplazmatyczny

D

decontaminate [diikon’tamynejt] odkazić

decontamination [diikontamy’nejszyn] odkażanie

dehydrogenase [di’hajdrołdżenejz] dehydrogenaza

deletion [dy’liiszyn] delecja

Dengue fever [dengej fiiwer] gorączka denga

deoxygenate [dii’oksydżynejt] odtlenować

diabetes [daja’biitiiz] cukrzyca

~ mellitus [~ ’melytes], [~ ’melajtes] moczówka cukrowa, cukrzyca

diarrhoea [daje’rija] biegunka

diglyceride [daj’glyserajd] digliceryd

dihydrate [daj’hajdrejt] dihydrat

dimer [dajmer] dimer

diphtheria [dyf’tyrja] dyfteryt, błonica

dipstick test [dypstyk test] test paskowy (np. moczu, do wykonania w domu)

disability [dysa’bylyti] niezdolność, kalectwo

discharge [dys’czaa(r)dż] wydzielać; wydzielina

disomy [dyzoomi] US [daj’zoomi] dysomia

uniparental ~ [juunipe’rentyl ~] dysomia jednorodzicielska

disorder [dys’oo(r)der] zaburzenie, niedomoga

distal [dystyl] dystalny, dalszy

dominant [’domynent] dominujący

donor [dołne(r)] dawca

dosage [doł’sydż] dawkowanie

drug ~ form [drag ~ foo(r)m] postać leku

double-stranded (gen.) [dabyl strendyd] dwuniciowy

drainage [’drejnydż] drenaż

duct [dakt] przewód

collecting ~ [ko’lektyng ~] ~ moczowy, moczowód

duplication [duuply’kejszyn] duplikacja

dysfunctional [dys’fankszynyl] dysfunkcyjny

E

earwax [iir’łeks] = cerumen

eclipse period [y’klyps pyrjed] okres eklipsy/zakażenia aktywnego

oedematous [ydiim’etes] obrzęknięty/spuchnięty

effusion [y’fjuużyn] wysięk; wylew; wyziew

ejaculate [’ydżekjulejt] mieć wytrysk, ejakulować; ejakulat

electrolyte [y’lekrtolajt] elektrolit

electrophoresis [ylektrołfo’riisis] elektroforeza

embryo [’embrioł] embrion

encapsulated [yn’kapsjulejtyd] z otoczką (bakterie)

endocrine [’endokryn] wewnątrzwydzielniczy

endolymph [’endolymf] endolimfa

endometrial [endo’miitrjal] endometrialny

endoscope [’endoskołp] endoskop

enzyme [enzajm] enzym

enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay [enzajm-lynkt ymjuno’sorbent] test immunoenzymosorpcyjny

eosinophil [i’esynofyl] eozynofil

epithelial [epi’fiiljel] nabłonkowy

equine influenza [iikłajn yn’fluenza] końska grypa

erythrocyte [er’yfrosajt] erytrocyt

oestrogen [’iistrodżen] estrogen

ethanol [’efenol] etanol

eukaryote [juu’karjołt] eukariota

excretion [yk’skriiszyn] wydzielina; wydzielanie

expression [yk’spreszyn] ekspresja

extinguish [yk’styngłysz] gasić

extracellular [ekstra’sejule(r)] zewnątrz-/pozakomórkowy

extremity [yk’stremyty] kończyna

exudate [’eksjudejt] wysączać; wysięk

F

failure [felje(r)] niewydolność

renal/heart ~ [riinal/haa(r)t ~] niewydolność nerek/serca

fascioliasis [fasijoł’lajesys] motylica, choroba motylicza, fascjoloza

fasciolosis (łac.) = fascioliasis

feces [’fiisiiz] kał

fermentation [fermentej’szyn] fermentacja

fertility [fe(r)’tylyti] płodność

foetal [fiitel] płodowy

foetus [fiites] płód

fibrin [fybryn], [fajbryn] fibryna

fibrinogen [fy’bryndżen], [faj’brynodżen] fibrynogen

fibronectin [fajbro’nektyn], [fybro’nektyn] fibronektyna

fistula [’fystjula] przetoka

flagellum [fla’dżelem] pl. flagella [fladżela] wić (np. u bakterii)

flagged [fleegd] zaznaczony

flatworm [’flatłee(r)m] płazińce

fluke [fluuk] motylica, przywra

liver ~ [lywe(r) fluuk] ~ wątrobowa

sheep liver ~ [sziip lywe(r) fluuk] = liver fluke

fluorescence [floo’resens] fluorescencja

fluorescent [floo’resent] fluorescencyjny

follicle [’folykyl] pęcherzyk; grudka; mieszek włoskowy

forensic [fo’rensyk] dot. medycyny sądowej

formed element [foo(r)md ’element] element morfotyczny

fossa [fosa] dół (np. pachowy)

fungus [fanges], pl. fungi [fangaj] mikrobiol. grzyb

fusiform [’fjuzyfoo(r)m] wrzecionowaty

G

galactosemia [galaktoł’siimja] galaktozemia

gastrointestinal [gastroyn’testynyl] żołądkowo-jelitowy

gene [dżiin] gen

genetic [dże’netyk] genetyczny

genome [dżiinołm] genom; ~ mapping [~ mapyng] mapowanie genomu

genus [dżiines], pl. genera [’dżenra] rodzaj

germ [dżeerm] zarazek, mikroorganizm, drobnoustrój

German fever [dże(r)myn fiiwe(r)] = rubella

giardia [dżii’ardija] lamblia

giardiasis [dżiiar’djesys] = lambliosis

glandular fever US [’glandżuler fiiwer], Br. [’glandjule(r) fiiwe(r)] = infectious mononucleosis

globulin [’globjulyn] globulina

gamma ~ [gama ~] gamma globulina

glomerular [glo’mer(j)ula(r)] = capsula glomeruli

~ capsule [~ ’kaps(j)ul]

glomerulonephritis [glomer(j)ulonef’rajtys] zapalenie kłębków nerkowych

glomerulus [glo’mer(j)ules], pl. glomeruli [glo’mer(j)ulaj] kłębek nerkowy

glucose [’gluukołs] glukoza

glyceride [’glyserajd] gliceryd

glycoprotein [glajkoł’protiin] glikoproteina

glycosuria [glajkosjue’rja] cukromocz

gonad [gołnad] gonada

gonadal dysgenesis [goł’nejdjel dys’dżenesys] dysgenezja gonad

gonadotropin [gonadoł’tropyn] gonadotropina

gonococcus [gonoł’kokes], pl. gonococci [gonoł’koksaj] gonokok, dwoinka rzeżączki

Gram stain [gram stejn] barwienie (bakterii) metodą Grama

granulocyte [’granjulosajt] granulocyt

H

half-life [haaf lajf] okres półtrwania; okres połowicznego rozpadu

health care provider [helf kee(r) pro’wajde(r)] pracownik/placówka służby zdrowia, lekarz prowadzący

helical [’helykyl], [’hiilykyl] helikalny

helix [hiilyks], pl. helices [’hiilysiiz] helisa

helminths [helmyntf] robak/pasożyt jelitowy

haemagglutination [himołglutyn’ejszyn] hemaglutynacja

haematocrit [hi’matokryt] hematokryt

haematologic [himato’lodżik] hematologiczny

haematoma [hima’tołma] krwiak

haemoglobin [hiimo’glołbyn] hemoglobina

haemolysis [hi’molysys] hemoliza

haemolyse [’hiimolajz] hemolizować

haemorrhage [’hem(o)rydż] krwotok

haemostasis [he’mostasys] hemostaza

heparin [’heperyn] heparyna

~ lock [~ lok] zamek hep; blokada heparyny

hepatitis [hepe’tajtys] zapalenie wątroby

herpes [hee(r)piiz] opryszczka

~ simplex [~ sympleks] ~ wargowa

~ zoster [~ zaste(r)] ~ narządów płciowych

heterozygosity [heterołzaj’gasytii] heterozygotyczność

heterozygote [heteroł’zajgołt] heterozygota

hexamer [hek’semer] heksamer

histamine [’hystemiin] histamina

histone [’hystołn] histon

homeostasis [hołmioł’stejsys] homeostaza

homozygosity [homołzaj’gasytii] homozygotyczność

homozygote [homoł’zajgołt] homozygota

hormone [hoo(r)mołn] hormon

hybridization [hajbrydaj’zejszyn] hybrydyzacja

hydro- [hajdroł-] przedrostek hydro- oznaczający wodę

~philic [hajdroł’fylyk] hydrofilny, wodolubny

~phobic [hajdroł’foobyk] hydrofobowy wodonielubny (odpychający cząsteczki wody)

hydrogen [’hajdrydżen] wodór

hygroscopic [hajgro’skopyk] hygroskopijny

hyperinfection [hajper yn’fekszyn] hiperinfekcja

hypo- [hajpoł-] przedrostek hypo- (oznaczający coś o mniejszym nasileniu; pod, poniżej)

~plastic []hajpoł’plastyk] hipoplastyczny

~proteinemia [hajpoł prołtiin’iimja] hipoproteinemia, niedobiałczenie krwi

~theroidism [hajpoł’tajroidyzym] hipotyroidizm, niedoczynność tarczycy

I

immune system [y’mjuun system] układ odpornościowy

immunity [y’mjuunyti] odporność; humoral ~ [’hjuumeral ~] ~ humoralna

immuno- [ymjunoł-] przedrostek immuno- oznacza związek z odpornością

~assay [ymjunoł e’sej] test/badanie immunologiczne

~chemical [ymjunoł’kemykyl] immunochemiczny

~compromised [ymjunoł’kompremajzd] charakteryzujący się niedoborem odporności

~deficiency [ymjunoł dy’fyszensi] niedobór odporności

~electrophoresis [ymjunoł ylektrofo’riisys] immunoelektroforeza

~fixation [ymjunołfyk’sejszyn] immunofiksacja

~globulin [ymjunoł’globjulyn] immunoglobulina

~suppressive [ymjunoł se’presyw] immunosupresyjny; lek immunosupresyjny

in situ [yn’sytszuu], [yn sajtu] in situ (łac.), dosł. w miejscu

incinerate [yn’synyrejt] spalać

incinerator [yn’synyrejte(r)] piec do spopielania; spalarnik

incubation [ynkju’bejszyn] inkubacja

infertility [ynfer’tylyti] niepłodność

inflammation [ynfle’mejszyn] stan zapalny, zapalenie

inflammatory [yn’flemetri] zapalny

informed consent [yn’foo(r)md kon’sent] świadoma zgoda na zabieg/badania

infusion [yn’fjuużyn] wlew

inhalation [ynhe’lejszyn] inhalacja

inhibition [in(h)y’byszyn] inhibicja/hamowanie

~ zone [in(h)y’byszyn zołn] strefa inhibicji/hamowania

innate [y’nejt] wrodzony

inoculate [y’nokjulejt] w-/za-szczepić

inoculation [ynokju’lejszyn] inokulacja

inoculum [y’nokjulem], pl. inocula [y’nokjula] inokulum

insertion [yn’see(r)szyn] insercja

interstitial [ynte(r)’styszyl] śródmiąższowy

intestine [yn’testyn] = pot. bowel [bałyl] jelito

large ~ [laardż yn’testyn] ~ grube

small ~ [smool yn’testyn] ~ cienkie

intra- [yntra-] przedrostek intra- znaczy wewnątrz, do

~cellular [yntra’seljule(r)] wewnątrzkomórkowy

~dermal [yntra’dermal] śródskórny

~venous [yntra’wiines] dożylny

inversion [yn’wee(r)żyn] inwersja

iodine [’ajedajn], [’ajediin] jod; jodyna

Lugol’s ~ [lu’golz ’ajedajn], [lu’golz ’ajediin] płyn Lugola

Lugol’s solution [lu’golz so’luuszyn] = Lugol’s iodine

iron US [ajren], Br. [ajen] żelazo

isoniazid [ajsoł’najazd] izoniazyd

isopropyl [ajsoł’propyl] izopropyl

J

jaundice [’dżoondys] żółtaczka

K

karyotyping [’karijołtajpyng] kariotypowanie

ketone [kiitołn] keton

ketonuria [kiitoł’nuurja] ketonuria

L

lactic [laktyk] mlekowy (np. kwas)

lactoferrin [laktoł’feryn] laktoferyna

lactose [laktołs] laktoza

lambliasis [lem’blajesys] lamblioza

laryngitis [laryn’dżajtys] zapalenie krtani

lassitude [’lasytjuud] znużenie, zmęczenie

latent [lejtent] utajony

latex [lejteks] lateks

latitude [’latytjuud] zakres swobody ruchów

lavage [lawydż], [la’waaż] płukanie (np. żołądka); obmywanie

leucine [luusiin] leucyna

leukocyte [’l(j)uukosajt] leukocyt

leukaemia [lu’kimja] białaczka

lineage [’lynjecz] rodowód

linear [lynje(r)] linearny, liniowy

lipid [lypyd] lipid, tłuszcz

lipo- [lypoł-] przedrostek lipo- oznaczający tłuszcz

~philic [lypoł’fylyk] lipofilny, tłuszczolubny

~phobic [lypoł’fobyk] lipofobowy (odpychający cząsteczki tłuszczu)

~polysaccharide [lypołpoly’sakerajd] lipopolisacharyd

~protein [lypoł’prołtiin] lipoproteina

lockjaw [lokdżoo] = tetanus

locus [lołkes], pl. loci [lołsaj] locus (genu)

loop of Henle [luup ow henlii] pętla Henlego

lumbar [lambe(r)] lędźwiowy

lumbricoid [’lambrykojd] glistowaty

luteinizing [luty’najzyng] luteinizujący

lymph [lymf] limfa

lymphatic [lym’fatyk] limfatyczny

lymphedema [lymfe’diima] obrzęk limfatyczny

lymphocyte [’lymfosajt] limfocyt

lymphoma [lym’fołma] chłoniak

M

macro- [makroł-] przedrostek macro- znaczy olbrzymi; odnoszący się do całości czegoś

~molecular [makroł moł’lekjula(r)] wielkocząsteczkowy

~phage [’makrołfejdż] makrofag

~scopic [makroł’skopyk] makroskopowy

magnesium [mag’niizjem] magnez

malabsorption [maleb’sorpszyn] nieprawidłowe wchłanianie

malformation [malfo(r)’mejszyn] wada rozwojowa, deformacja

malforming agent [malformyng ejdżynt] czynnik powodujący deformacje rozwojowe

malignancy [ma’lygnensi] złośliwość

malignant [ma’lygnent] złośliwy (np. nowotwór)

marker [maa(r)ke(r)] marker

marrow [meroł] szpik kostny

mastectomy [mas’tektomi] mastektomia

matrix [’mejtryks], pl. matrices [’mejtrysiiz] matriks, macierz (np. jądrowa, mitochondrialna)

measles [miizylz] odra

median [miidjen] mediana

medium [miidjem], media [miidia] medium, podłoże hodowlane

medulla [med’ala] szpik, substancja rdzenna

melanoma [mele’nołma] czerniak

meningococcus [meningoł’kakes] pl. meningococci [meningoł’kosaj] dwoinka zapalenia opon mózgowych

mesothelioma [mezoł’fiiljołma] rak opłucnej

messenger [’mesyndże(r)] przekaźnik

metabolic [mete’bolyk] metaboliczny

metabolism [me’tabolyzm] metabolizm

metastatic [meta’statyk] metastatyczny

micro- [majkroł] przedrostek micro- znaczy bardzo mały

~array [majkroł e’rej] mikromacierz

~satellite [majkroł’satelajt] mikrosatelita

~scopic [majkroł’skopyk] mikroskopowy; mikroskopijny

~scopy [maj’krołskopii], [’majkrołskopii] mikroskopia

~satellite [majkroł’satelajt] mikrosatelita

micturate [’mykczurejt] oddawać mocz

micturition [mykczu’ryszyn] oddawanie moczu

miscarriage [’myskarycz], [mys’karycz] poronienie

mitochondrial [majtoł’kondrjel] mitochondrialny

molecule [’molekjuul] cząsteczka, molekuła

mono- [monoł-] przedrostek mono- znaczy pojedynczy, „jedno-”

~cyte [’monosajt] monocyt

~glyceride [monoł’glyserajd] monogliceryd

~nuclear [monoł’n(j)uuklyjer] mononuklearny

~nucleosis [monołnjuukli’ołsys] mononukleoza

morbidity [moo(r)’bydyti] zachorowalność; stan chorobowy

mortality [moo(r)talyti] śmiertelność

motile [mołtyl] ruchliwy

mucoviscidosis [mjukoł’wysy’dołsys] mukowiscydoza

mucus [mjuukes] śluz

mumps [mamps] świnka (choroba)

mutation [mjuu’tejszyn] mutacja

mycobacteria [majkołbak’tiirja], sing. mycobacterium [majkołbak’tiirjem] mykobakterie

myeloma [maje’lołma], pl. myelomas, myelomata [maje’lołmata] szpiczak

myeloproliferative disease [’majelołpro’lyfere(j)tyw dy’ziiz] nowotwór mieloproliferacyjny

myeloid leukaemia [maje’lojd luu’kiimja] białaczka szpikowa

N

n-ploid [en plojd] n-ploid

n-tuple [en ’t(j)upyl] n-krotny; n-krotna

nasogastric tube [nejzo’gastryk t(j)uub] rurka nosowo-żołądkowa

nausea [’noozja] nudności

necrotic [nek’rotyk] martwiczy

nematode [’nematołd] nicień w typie obleńce

neoplastic [niioł’plastyk] neoplastyczny

nephron [nefroon] nefron

neutrophil [’n(j)uutrofyl] neutrofil

next-generation sequencing method [nekst dżener’ejszyn ’siikłensyng mefod] metoda NSG (next-generation sequencing)

nitrate [najtrejd] azotan

non- [non] przedrostek non- znaczy pozbawiony czegoś; „bez”; „nie”

~ - encapsulated [non yn’kapsjulejtyd] bez otoczki

~ - steroidal [non stii’rojdal], [non ste’rojdal] niesterydowy

nonmotile [non mołtyl] nieruchliwy

nucleocapsid [n(j)uuklijoł’kapsyd] nukleokapsyd

nucleotide [’n(j)uuklijołtajd] nukleotyd

O

obstructive [ob’straktyw] czopujący, -a, -e; zamykający, -a, -e

occlusive [ok’luzyw] okluzyjny, uciskowy

occult [o’kalt] utajony, -a, -e (np. krew)

oncotic pressure [on’kotyk presze(r)] ciśnienie onkotyczne

osmotic [oz’motyk] osmotyczny, -a, -e

~ pressure [oz’motyk presze(r)] ciśnienie osmotyczne

osteoarthritis [ostijoł’aa(r)frajtys] osteoartretyzm

ovum [ołwem], pl. ova [ołwa] jajeczko, jajo

oxalate [’okselejt] szczawian

oxygen [’oksydżyn] tlen

oxygenation [oksydży’nejszyn] utlenowanie; dotlenienie

P

pancreatic [penkrii’etyk] trzustkowy

Papanicolaou test; [papa’niikolał test], Pap smear/test [pap smijer/test] wymaz cytologiczny (pap test)

paracentesis [parasen’tisys] paracenteza, nakłucie jamy otrzewnowej

parasite [’paresajt] parazyt, pasożyt

parasitic [pare’sytyk] pasożytniczy

parietal [pe’rajetyl] ścienny; ciemieniowy

parvovirus [’parwołwajres] parwowirus

patency [’peItənsI] med. drożność, np. ~ igły, żyły

pathogen [’pafodżyn] patogen

pathogenic [pafo’dżenyk] patogenny

penetrance [’penetrens] penetracja (genu)

penicillin [peny’sylyn] penicylina

pentamer [’pentamer] pentamer

peptidoglycan [peptydoł’glajken] peptydoglikan

pericardial ~ [pery’kaa(r)djal] osierdziowy

pericardiocentesis [perykaa(r)diołsen’tisys] perikardiocenteza, nakłucie worka osierdziowego

pericardium [pery’kaa(r)djem] osierdzie

perilymph [’perylymf] przychłonka, perylimfa

peritoneal ~ [pery’tonijel] otrzewnowy

peritoneum [peryto’nijem] otrzewna

pertussis [per’tasys] koklusz

phagocyte [fagoł’sajt] fagocyt

phagocytic [fagoł’sytyk] fagocytarny, fagocytowy

phagocytosis [fagołsaj’tołsys] fagocytoza

phenylketonuria [fenylkiitoł’nuurja] fenyloketonuria

phosphatase [’fosfetejz] fosfataza

phosphate [’fosfejt] fosforan

phospholipid [fosfoł’lypyd] fosfolipid

pinworm [’pynłee(r)m] owsik

platelet [plejtlet] płytka (krwi)

pleura [plułra] opłucna

pleural ~ [’pluerel] opłucnowy

pneumococcus [njuumo’kokes], pl. pneumococci [njumo’kosaj] pneumokok, dwoinka zapalenia płuc

pneumonia [n(j)uu’mołnja] zapalenie płuc

pneumonitis [n(j)uumoł’najtys] = pneumonia

polar [połle(r)] polarny, biegunowy

polymorphism [poly’morfyzym] polimorfizm

polio [poljoł] = poliomyelitis

poliomyelitis [poljołmaje’latys] choroba Heinego-Medina

poly- [poly] przedrostek poly- znaczy wielo-, wiele, wielu

~cythemia [poly’sajfiimia] policytemia

~mer [polymer] polimer

~merase [poly’merejs] polimeraza

~morphism [poly’morfyzem] polimorfizm

~morphonuclear [polymorfoł’n(j)uuklijer] polimorfonuklearny

~peptide chain [poly’peptajd] polipeptyd

~saccharide [poly’sakerajd] polisacharyd

potassium [po’tasjem] potas

poxvirus [’pokswajres] poksywirus

precipitation [prysypy’tejszyn] precypitacja, strącanie, wytrącanie

prion [prajon], [pryjon] prion

probe [prołb] sonda

progesterone [proł’dżesterołn] progesteron

prokaryote [proł’karjołt] prokariota

protein [prołtiin] białko

proteinuria [prołty’njurja] białkomocz, proteinuria

protist [prołtyst] protista

protozoa [protoł’zoła] pierwotniak

protozoan [protoł’zołan] pierwotniakowy

proximal [’proksymyl] proksymalny, bliższy

pseudopodium [s(j)uudoł’podjem], pl. pseudopodia [s(j)uudoł’podja] pseudopodium, nibynóżka

puberty [’pjuuberti] pokwitanie, okres dojrzewania

puncture [pankcze(r)] punkcja, nakłucie, wkłucie

pyuria [pa’juurja] ropomocz

R

rabies [’rejbiiz] wścieklizna

radial [’rejdjel] promieniowy

radioisotope [rejdjoł’ajsotołp] radioizotop

receptor [ry’septe(r)] receptor

recessive [ry’sesyw] recesywny (np. gen)

renal [riinyl] nerkowy

~ medulla [me’dala] rdzeń ~

~ pelvis [pelwys] miedniczka ~

replicate [’replykejt] replikować

replication [reply’kejszyn] replikacja

requisition slip [rekły’zyszyn slyp] zlecenie lekarskie na badania

respiratory [ry’spyretri] oddechowy

retention [ry’tenszyn] zatrzymanie, retencja

retrovirus [retroł’wajres] retrowirus

rhesus positive/ negative [riises’ pozytyw/’negatyw]] Rh dodatnie/ujemne

rheumatoid arthritis [’rumatojd aa(r)frajtys] pierwotnie postępujący gościec stawowy

roundworm [rałndłee(r)m] = ascaris

rubella [ruubela] różyczka (choroba)

rubeola [ruubii’ola] measles

S

safranin [’safraaniin] szafranina

salicylate [sa’lysylejt] salicylan

saline [’sejliin], [’sejlajn] roztwór soli fizjologicznej

saliva [se’lajwa] ślina

saprophytic [sapro’fytyk] = obsolate

scrape [skrejp] biopsja rysowa i wyskrobiny

seatworm [’siitłee(r)m] = pinworm

sebum [siibum] sebum, łój skórny

secretion [sy’kriiszyn] wydzielina, wydzielanie

tubular~ [’t(j)uubjuler sy’kriiszyn] wydzielanie cewkowe (nerki)

semen [siimen] nasienie

sensitization [sensyty’zejszyn] sensytyzacja

sepsis [sepsys] sepsa, posocznica

sequela [sy’kłiila], pl. sequelae [sy’kłiilii] następstwo

sequence [siikłens] sekwencja; sekwens; ciąg

sequencing [’siikłensyng] sekwencjonowanie

serous [seros] surowiczy

serum [sirem] surowica

shingles [’szyngylz] = herpes zoster

single nucleotide polymorphism [syngyl ’n(j)uuklijołtajd poly’morfyzym] polimorfizm pojedynczego nukleotydu (SNP)

single-stranded (gen.) [syngyl strended] jednoniciowy

skin oil [skyn ojl] = sebum

smear [smijer] wymaz

smegma [smegma] mastka

snip [snyp] sl. single nucleotide polymorphism

snippet [snypyt] sl. = single nucleotide polymorphism

sodium [sołdjem] sód

solute [’soljuut] substancja rozpuszczona

specific gravity [spe’syfyk ’grawyti] ciężar właściwy

specimen [’spesymyn] próbka

timed collection ~ [tajmd ko’lekszyn ’spesymyn] czasowa zbiórka moczu

random urine ~ [’rendom ’juryn ’spesymyn] próbka losowa moczu

double-voided ~ [dabyl wojdyd ’spesymyn] druga (poranna) próbka moczu

sphincter [’sfynkte(r)] zwieracz (mięsień)

spirillum [spaj’rylem], pl. spirilla [spaj’ryla] śrubowiec (bakteria)

spirochete [spajroł’kiit] krętek (bakteria)

sputum [’spjuutym] plwocina

stain [stejn] barwić; barwnik; plama

sterilization [sterylaj’zejszyn] sterylizacja

steroid [’sterojd], [’stiirojd] steryd

steroidal [ste’rojdal], [stii’rojdal] sterydowy

sterol [’stiirołl], [’styrołl] sterol

stillbirth [’stylbee(r)f] poród martwego płodu

stool [stuul] = feces

streaking [’striikyng] posiew redukcyjny/mazany

sub- [sab-] przedrostek sub- znaczy pod, poniżej

~arachnoid [sab a’raknojd] podpajęczynówkowy

subsalicylate [sab sa’lysylejt] subsalicylan

sulphate [salfejt] siarczan

sulphonamide [sal’fonemajd] sulfonamid

suprapubic [supra’pjubyk] nadłonowy

sweat [słet] pot; pocić się

syncytial [syn’syszyl] syncycjalny

synovial [saj’nołwjel] maziowy

T

tapeworm [’tejpłee(r)m] tasiemiec

armed ~ [aa(r)md ’tejpłee(r)m] ~ uzbrojony

fish ~ [fysz ’tejpłee(r)m] ~rybi

pork ~ [poo(r)k ’tejpłee(r)m] ~ świński (armed tapeworm)

teichoic [ti’koik] teichonowy (kwas)

tellurite [’teljurajt] telluran

tentacle [’tentykyl] czułek

testosterone [tes’tosteron] testosteron

tetanus [tytnes] tężec

thalassemia [tala’siimja] talasemia

thoracentesis [forasen’tisys] torakocenteza, nakłucie jamy opłucnowej

threadworm [’fredłee(r)m] = pinworm

thrombocythemia [frombołsaj’fiimja] trombocytoza

thromboembolic [fromboł em’boolyk] tromboemboliczny (np. choroba)

thrombosis [from’bołsys] tromboza

tissue [tysz(j)u], [tysju] tkanka

connective ~ [ko’nektyw tysz(j)u] ~ łączna

toxicity [tok’sysyti] toksyczność

trait [trejt] cecha

tranquillizer [’trankłylajzer] lek kojący, trankwilizator

transfusion [trans’fjuużyn] transfuzja

translocation [transloł’kejszyn] translokacja

transudate [’trens(j)uudejt] przesięk

trematode [’trematołd] przywra

treponeme [’treponiim] krętek

trichomonad [trykoł’mołnjad] rzęsistek

trichomoniasis [trykomo’najesys] zakażenie rzęsistkiem

triglyceride [traj’glyserajd] trójgliceryd

trimer [trajmer] trimer

trophozoite [trołfe’zołajd] trofozoid

tube [t(j)uub] rurka, tuba; evacuated ~ ~ próżniowa

tuberculosis [t(j)uube(r)kju’lołsys] gruźlica

tubular reabsorption [t(j)uubjule(r) riiab’zoorpszyn] kanalikowa reabsorpcja

tubule [t(j)uubjul] kanalik

convoluted ~ [’konwolutyd ~] ~ dystalny - odcinek kanalika nerkowego między pętlą Henlego a kanalikiem zbiorczym

tumour [tumer] guz nowotworowy

typhoid [’tajfojd] tyfus

typhoid fever [’tajfojd fiiwe(r)] = typhoid fever

tyrosine [’tajresiin] tyrozyna

U

ulcerative [’alserejtyw] wrzodziejący, -a, -e

ultra-filtration [altra fyl’trejszyn] = glomerular filtration

ultrasound [’altrasałnd] ultradźwięk

urate [jurejt] moczan

urea [ju;rija] mocznik

ureter [ju’riite(r)] moczowód

urethra [ju’riifra] cewka moczowa

urethral [ju’riifrel] cewkowy

~ catheterization [ju’riifrel kafetery’zejszyn] cewnikowanie pęcherza moczowego przez cewkę

urinalysis [jury’nalysys], pl. urinalyses [jury’nalysiiz] analiza moczu

urinate [’jurynejt] oddawać mocz, sikać

urine [’juryn], [jurajn] mocz

~ analysis [juryn e’nalysys], pl. ~ analyses [juryn e’nalysiiz] = urinalysis

~ reagent strip [juryn rii’ejdżynt stryp] pasek do analizy moczu

urobilinogen [jurobaj’lynydżyn] urobilinogen

V

vaccinate [’waksynejt] szczepić

~ against [’waksynejt e’gejnst], [’waksynejt e’genst] szczepić przeciwko

vaccine [’waksiin] szczepionka

vaginal [we’dżajnyl] pochwowy

~ thrush [we’dżajnyl frasz] = candidiasis

vaginosis [wedży’nołsys] waginoza

varicella [wary’sela] ospa wietrzna

venipuncture [’wenypankcze(r)] nakłucie żyły

venous [wiines] żylny

vessel [wesyl] naczynie (krwionośne)

vibrio [’wybrjoł] przecinkowiec

virion [’wajriion], [’wirjołn] wirion

virulence [’wir(u)lens], [’wirjulens] wirulencja, zjadliwość, złośliwość

virus [wajres] wirus

enveloped [’envelołpt ~] ~ z otoczką

naked ~ [nejkyd ~] ~ bez otoczki

unenveloped ~ [an’envelołpt ~] = naked ~

visceral [’wysyryl] trzewiowy, trzewny

vitreous humour [’wytrjes ’hjuume(r)] = aqueous humor

void [wojd] = urinate; wypróżnić pęcherz

voiding [wojdyng] = micturition

W

western blot [’łesten blot] western blot (metoda służąca do wykrywania określonych białek)

wet mount [łet małnt] wet mount (tzw. badanie w „kropli wiszącej”)

whooping cough [hupyng cof] = pertussis

X

X-ray [’eksrej] prześwietlenie rentgenowskie

Y

yeast [jiist], pl. yeasts [jiists] drożdżak, drożdże

Z

Ziehl-Neelsen stain/method stain [’tsil’ ’nejlsen stejn/mefod] = acid-fast stain

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABGs Arterial blood gases

AFB stain Acid-fast bacillus stain

AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome

ALP Alkaline phosphatase

ALT Alanine aminotransferase

ASO Antistreptolysin O titer

AST Aspartate aminotransferase

BCR B-cell receptor

BDD Body dysmorphic disorder

BRCA Breast cancer

BUN Blood urea nitrogen

Ca Calcium

CBC Complete blood (cell) count

CDC Centers of Disease Control and Prevention

CF Complement fixation

Cl Chloride

CO2 Carbon dioxide

CPR C-reactive protein

CSF Cerebrospinal fluid

CT Computer tomography

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

EIA = ELISA

ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

EMT Emergency medical technician

EPO Erythropoietin

Etest Epsilometer test

Fe Iron

fFN Fetal Fibronectin

FISH Fluorescence in situ hybridization

FIT Fecal immunochemical test

FNA Fine needle aspiration

GI Gastrointestinal

HBV Hepatitis B virus

HCG Human chorionic gonadotropin

HCO3 Bicarbonate, hydrogen carbonate

HPO4 Hydrogen phosphate

Hct, HCT Hematocrit

HDL High-density lipoprotein

Hgb, Hb Hemoglobin

HIV Human immunodeficiency virus

HPF High power field

HSV Herpes simplex virus

IA Intra-arterial

ICD-10-CM International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision, Clinical Modification)

ICD-10-PCS ICD-10 Procedure Coding System

ID Intradermal

Ig Immunoglobulin

IgA, IGA Immunoglobulin A

(Ig)M Immunoglobulin

IHC Immunochemical stains

IM Intramuscular

INR International normalization ratio

ITT Insulin tolerance test

IV Intravenous

K Potassium

LDL Low-density lipoprotein

LHD Lactic dehydrogenase

LPF Low power field

MCV Mean corpuscular volume

Mg Magnesium

MIC Minimal inhibitory concentration

MPG Mean plasma glucose

MUS Medically unexplained symptoms

Na Sodium

NK cells Natural killer cells

NSAID Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug

O&P Ova and parasites

O2 Oxygen

OB Occult blood

OTC Over-the-counter drug/medication

P Phosphorus

PAP Prostatic acid phosphatase

Pap Papanicolaou test/smear

Pb Lead

Pco2, PaCO2 Partial pressure of carbon dioxide

PCR Polymerase chain reaction

PET Positron-emission tomography

pH Hydrogen ion concentration

PKU Phenylketonuria

PMN Polymorphonuclear leukocyte

Po2, PaO2 Partial pressure of oxygen

PO4 Phosphate

PPBS Postprandial blood sugar

PPG Postprandial glucose

PTP Prothrombin time

QTL Quantitative trait locus

RBC Red blood cell

RF Rheumatoid factor

RIA Radioimmunoassay

RNA Ribonucleic acid

SARS Severe acute respiratory syndrome

SC Subcutaneous

SNP Single nucleotide polymorphism

SPA Suprapubic aspirate

STS Serologic test for syphilis

T3 Triiodothyronine

T4 Thyroxine

TB Tuberculosis

TBG Thyroxine-binding globulin

TEM Transmission electron microscopy

TRF Thyrotropin releasing factor

TRH Thyrotropin releasing hormone

UA Urinalysis, urine analysis

UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

USG Ultrasound

UTI Urinary tract infection

VPS Ventilation/perfusion scanning

WBC White blood cell

WHO World Health Organization

WNL Within normal limits